QA BM Split - IAS (atomic_bm)

# This body had no empty-state at all, unlike its five siblings -- a missing
# input was an error rather than a rendered explanation.
if (isTRUE(x$empty)) {
  cat(sprintf(
    "No BM-split QA data for `%s` at granularity `%s` -- that granularity has not been segmented/scored yet. Run the `nli_ready_evidence_parquet` chain for it and re-render.\n\n",
    params$assessment_id, params$granularity
  ))
  knitr::knit_exit()
}

IAS – granularity: atomic_bm

Methodology

Every Background Message (BM) in this assessment is split into claims by nli_ready_evidence_parquet under the granularity of the NLI config selected by input/config.yaml’s fact_checking.nli. This report is a QA check on that split, not a scoring result — for every BM field, it shows the original bm_description/bm_label text with each resulting claim’s source span colour-highlighted, followed by the claims themselves as a colour-matched list, so the segmentation can be sanity-checked by eye before any NLI/LLM scoring is run against it. Highlighting is based on the raw span each claim was cut from, before any confidence-qualifier removal or (for atomic_bm) LLM completion – so it covers at least the major part of a claim’s origin, even where the listed claim text itself was reworded. See TD_BM_NLI_approach.qmd for the full design rationale behind each granularity option (naive_bm / complete_bm / atomic_bm).

cat(sprintf("- **%d** distinct BMs, **%d** resulting claims\n", n_bm, n_claims))

• 49 distinct BMs, 494 resulting claims

if (has_confidence) {
  cat(sprintf(
    "- **%.1f%%** of claims had an IPBES confidence qualifier (\"well established\" / \"established but incomplete\" / \"unresolved\" / \"inconclusive\") extracted out of the claim text into its own column\n",
    pct_with_confidence
  ))
} else {
  cat(
    "- This granularity's claims carry no separate confidence-qualifier column (whole-field claims, `complete_bm` only).\n"
  )
}

• 85.8% of claims had an IPBES confidence qualifier (“well established” / “established but incomplete” / “unresolved” / “inconclusive”) extracted out of the claim text into its own column

Original BM vs. resulting claims

cat(x$html)

People and nature are threatened by invasive alien species in all regions of Earth {A1} (figure SPM.2). (KM-A1)

A1 -- bm_description

Alien species (plants, animals, fungi and microorganisms, including pathogens) are being introduced globally at an unprecedented rate; currently, approximately 200 new alien species are recorded every year (well established) {2.2.1}. Invasive alien species represent a subset of alien species, consisting of those that have established and spread and are known to have a negative impact on nature and, in some cases, people (figure SPM.1). Although their numbers are likely to be underestimated and expected to increase, to date 1,061 alien plants (6 per cent of all established alien plants), 1,852 alien invertebrates (22 per cent), 461 alien vertebrates (14 per cent) and 141 alien microbes (11 per cent) are known to be invasive globally (established but incomplete) {4.2}. Although some invasive alien species can provide benefits for people (e.g., through provision of food and fibre), those benefits do not mitigate or undo their negative impacts on nature, nature’s contributions to people, and good quality of life across all regions and taxa globally (well established) {1.3.4, 4.1.2, 4.3, 4.4, 4.5}. In addition to their impacts on nature, about 16 per cent of invasive alien species have negative impacts on nature’s contributions to people, and about 7 per cent on good quality of life (figure SPM.2) (established but incomplete) {4.2}. Based on data and information included in this assessment, most impacts are reported in the Americas (34 per cent), Europe and Central Asia (31 per cent) and Asia-Pacific (25 per cent), with fewer reported in Africa (7 per cent) (established but incomplete) {4.2}. Twenty per cent of all impacts are reported from islands (established but incomplete) {4.2}. A disproportionate number of documented negative impacts have been reported from the terrestrial realm (75 per cent), especially temperate and boreal forests and woodlands and cultivated areas (including agricultural land) (established but incomplete) {table 4.2}. About one quarter of the documented negative impacts have been reported from aquatic realms (freshwater: 14 per cent; marine: 10 per cent), especially from inland surface waters/waterbodies and shelf ecosystems (established but incomplete) {table 4.2}.

1. Alien species (plants, animals, fungi and microorganisms, including pathogens) are being introduced globally at an unprecedented rate; currently, approximately 200 new alien species are recorded every year
   2.2.1
   well established
2. Invasive alien species represent a subset of alien species, consisting of those that have established and spread and are known to have a negative impact on nature and, in some cases, people (figure SPM.1). Although their numbers are likely to be underestimated and expected to increase, to date 1,061 alien plants (6 per cent of all established alien plants), 1,852 alien invertebrates (22 per cent), 461 alien vertebrates (14 per cent) and 141 alien microbes (11 per cent) are known to be invasive globally.
   4.2
   established but incomplete
3. Although some invasive alien species can provide benefits for people (e.g., through provision of food and fibre), those benefits do not mitigate or undo their negative impacts on nature, nature’s contributions to people, and good quality of life across all regions and taxa globally
   1.3.4, 4.1.2, 4.3, 4.4, 4.5
   well established
4. In addition to their impacts on nature, about 16 per cent of invasive alien species have negative impacts on nature’s contributions to people, and about 7 per cent on good quality of life (figure SPM.2)
   4.2
   established but incomplete
5. Based on data and information included in this assessment, most impacts are reported in the Americas (34 per cent), Europe and Central Asia (31 per cent) and Asia-Pacific (25 per cent), with fewer reported in Africa (7 per cent)
   4.2
   established but incomplete
6. Twenty per cent of all impacts are reported from islands
   4.2
   established but incomplete
7. A disproportionate number of documented negative impacts have been reported from the terrestrial realm (75 per cent), especially temperate and boreal forests and woodlands and cultivated areas (including agricultural land).
   table 4.2
   established but incomplete
8. About one quarter of the documented negative impacts have been reported from aquatic realms (freshwater: 14 per cent; marine: 10 per cent), especially from inland surface waters/waterbodies and shelf ecosystems
   table 4.2
   established but incomplete

A1 -- bm_label

More than 37,000 established alien species, including more than 3,500 invasive alien species with documented impacts, have been recorded worldwide (well established) {2.1.4, 4.2}.

1. More than 37,000 established alien species, including more than 3,500 invasive alien species with documented impacts, have been recorded worldwide
   2.1.4, 4.2
   well established

Invasive alien species cause dramatic and, in some cases, irreversible changes to biodiversity and ecosystems, resulting in adverse and complex outcomes across all regions of Earth, including local and global species extinctions {A2, A3} (figure SPM.3). (KM-A2)

A2 -- bm_description

Invasive alien species have contributed solely or alongside other drivers of change to 60 per cent of recorded global animal and plant extinctions (established but incomplete) {box 4.4, 4.3.1}, while invasive alien species are the only driver attributed to 16 per cent of documented global extinctions (established but incomplete) {box 4.4}. The majority of documented global extinctions (90 per cent) with invasive alien species as one of the major causes are reported from islands (established but incomplete) {box 4.4}. At least 218 invasive alien species have caused 1,215 documented local extinctions of native species across all taxa (figure SPM.3) (established but incomplete) {4.3.1}. Invasive alien species harm native species most often by changing ecosystem properties (27 per cent), for example soil and water characteristics, and through competition between species (24 per cent), predation (18 per cent) and herbivory (12 per cent) (established but incomplete) {4.3.1.3}. The majority of reports of the impacts of invasive alien species on native species document negative effects (85 per cent), primarily negatively impacting the growth, survival and reproduction of individuals, which lead to local population declines and local and global extinctions (well established) {4.3.1}. Some invasive alien species have a profound ecological impact that spans various levels, from individual species and communities to whole ecosystems, resulting in complex, undesirable and in some cases irreversible outcomes when the system has crossed a threshold beyond which ecosystem restoration is not possible (well established) {box 4.12, 4.3.3}. For example, Castor canadensis (North American beaver) and Magallana gigas (Pacific oyster) change ecosystem properties by transforming habitats, with cascading effects on a myriad of native species (well established) {4.3.2.1, box 4.11}. On Christmas Island, the arrival of the invasive alien Anoplolepis gracilipes (yellow crazy ant) caused the decline of the native Christmas Island Gecarcoidea natalis (red crabs), which resulted in the population explosion of the invasive alien Lissachatina fulica (giant African land snail) (well established) {3.3.5.1}. Increased biotic homogenization (or loss of uniqueness) of biological communities is a major negative impact of invasive alien species (well established) {1.3.4}. The magnitude of the negative impacts of invasive alien species on nature depends on the context, and the factors that determine the highest magnitudes of impact are not well understood (established but incomplete) {box 4.9, 4.3.2.1, 4.7.1}. For example, the ctenophore Mnemiopsis leidyi (sea walnut) has depleted zooplankton, the main food source of the anchovy, and consequently contributed to the collapse of anchovy populations in the Black Sea, but this has not occurred in the Mediterranean Sea, the Baltic Sea or the North Sea (well established) {4.3.2.3}.

1. Invasive alien species have contributed solely or alongside other drivers of change to 60 per cent of recorded global animal and plant extinctions
   box 4.4, 4.3.1
   established but incomplete
2. While invasive alien species are the only driver attributed to 16 per cent of documented global extinctions
   box 4.4
   established but incomplete
3. The majority of documented global extinctions (90 per cent) with invasive alien species as one of the major causes are reported from islands
   box 4.4
   established but incomplete
4. At least 218 invasive alien species have caused 1,215 documented local extinctions of native species across all taxa (figure SPM.3)
   4.3.1
   established but incomplete
5. Invasive alien species harm native species most often by changing ecosystem properties (27 per cent), for example soil and water characteristics, and through competition between species (24 per cent), predation (18 per cent) and herbivory (12 per cent)
   4.3.1.3
   established but incomplete
6. The majority of reports of the impacts of invasive alien species on native species document negative effects (85 per cent), primarily negatively impacting the growth, survival and reproduction of individuals, which lead to local population declines and local and global extinctions
   4.3.1
   well established
7. Some invasive alien species have a profound ecological impact that spans various levels, from individual species and communities to whole ecosystems, resulting in complex, undesirable and in some cases irreversible outcomes when the system has crossed a threshold beyond which ecosystem restoration is not possible
   box 4.12, 4.3.3
   well established
8. For example, Castor canadensis (North American beaver) and Magallana gigas (Pacific oyster) change ecosystem properties by transforming habitats, with cascading effects on a myriad of native species
   4.3.2.1, box 4.11
   well established
9. On Christmas Island, the arrival of the invasive alien Anoplolepis gracilipes (yellow crazy ant) caused the decline of the native Christmas Island Gecarcoidea natalis (red crabs), which resulted in the population explosion of the invasive alien Lissachatina fulica (giant African land snail)
   3.3.5.1
   well established
10. Increased biotic homogenization (or loss of uniqueness) of biological communities is a major negative impact of invasive alien species
    1.3.4
    well established
11. The magnitude of the negative impacts of invasive alien species on nature depends on the context, and the factors that determine the highest magnitudes of impact are not well understood
    box 4.9, 4.3.2.1, 4.7.1
    established but incomplete
12. For example, the ctenophore Mnemiopsis leidyi (sea walnut) has depleted zooplankton, the main food source of the anchovy, and consequently contributed to the collapse of anchovy populations in the Black Sea, but this has not occurred in the Mediterranean Sea, the Baltic Sea or the North Sea
    4.3.2.3
    well established

A2 -- bm_label

Invasive alien species are a major direct driver of change, causing biodiversity loss, including local and global species extinctions (figure SPM.2) (figure SPM.3) (well established) {4.3.1}.

1. Invasive alien species are a major direct driver of change, causing biodiversity loss, including local and global species extinctions (figure SPM.2) (figure SPM.3)
   4.3.1
   well established

A3 -- bm_description

Islands, and particularly remote islands with high endemism, are more susceptible to impacts from invasive alien species than mainlands (well established) {1.6.8, 4.3.1.1}. Indeed, in addition to the majority of documented global extinctions attributed mainly to invasive alien species occurring on islands, local extinctions account for 9 per cent of documented impacts of invasive alien species on islands, in contrast to 4 per cent on mainlands (well established) {4.3.1.1}. For example, Boiga irregularis (brown tree snake) caused the global extinction of Myiagra freycineti (Guam flycatcher) and local extinction or serious population reduction for many other resident bird species in Guam (well established) {4.3.1}. Islands are also vulnerable to climate change, which can increase the rate of establishment and spread of many invasive alien species (well established) {box 2.5}. Many invasive alien species on islands only occupy a small portion of their predicted range and are likely to expand further (established but incomplete) {box 2.5}. The number of alien plants exceeds the total number of native plants on more than one quarter of islands (well established) {box 2.5}. Invasive alien species have been reported in areas protected for nature conservation, some remote areas (e.g., high mountains), and also in tundra and deserts, which emphasizes that these areas, despite being protected for nature conservation or remote, are also vulnerable to the negative impacts of invasive alien species (well established) {box 2.4, 4.3.1.2, 4.3.2.1}. Fifty-three invasive alien species have caused the local extinctions of 240 native species in protected areas globally (established but incomplete) {4.3.1.2}. The invasive alien Rattus rattus (black rat) has been documented as the only cause of the global extinction of Nesoryzomys darwini and Nesoryzomys indefessus (rice rats), which were endemic to the protected areas of the Galapagos Islands (well established) {4.3.1}.

1. Islands, and particularly remote islands with high endemism, are more susceptible to impacts from invasive alien species than mainlands.
   1.6.8, 4.3.1.1
   well established
2. Indeed, in addition to the majority of documented global extinctions attributed mainly to invasive alien species occurring on islands, local extinctions account for 9 per cent of documented impacts of invasive alien species on islands, in contrast to 4 per cent on mainlands
   4.3.1.1
   well established
3. For example, Boiga irregularis (brown tree snake) caused the global extinction of Myiagra freycineti (Guam flycatcher) and local extinction or serious population reduction for many other resident bird species in Guam
   4.3.1
   well established
4. Islands are also vulnerable to climate change, which can increase the rate of establishment and spread of many invasive alien species
   box 2.5
   well established
5. Many invasive alien species on islands only occupy a small portion of their predicted range and are likely to expand further
   box 2.5
   established but incomplete
6. The number of alien plants exceeds the total number of native plants on more than one quarter of islands
   box 2.5
   well established
7. Invasive alien species have been reported in areas protected for nature conservation, some remote areas (e.g., high mountains), and also in tundra and deserts, which emphasizes that these areas, despite being protected for nature conservation or remote, are also vulnerable to the negative impacts of invasive alien species
   box 2.4, 4.3.1.2, 4.3.2.1
   well established
8. Fifty-three invasive alien species have caused the local extinctions of 240 native species in protected areas globally
   4.3.1.2
   established but incomplete
9. The invasive alien Rattus rattus (black rat) has been documented as the only cause of the global extinction of Nesoryzomys darwini and Nesoryzomys indefessus (rice rats), which were endemic to the protected areas of the Galapagos Islands
   4.3.1
   well established

A3 -- bm_label

On islands, invasive alien species are a major cause of biodiversity loss (well established) {box 2.5, 4.3.1.1, box 4.4}.

1. On islands, invasive alien species are a major cause of biodiversity loss
   box 2.5, 4.3.1.1, box 4.4
   well established

The economy, food security, water security and human health are profoundly and negatively affected by invasive alien species {A4, A5} (figure SPM.3). (KM-A3)

A4 -- bm_description

Some alien species have been intentionally introduced for their benefits to people, often without consideration or knowledge of their negative impacts (well established) {3.3.1}. However, nearly 80 per cent of the documented impacts of invasive alien species on nature’s contributions to people are negative (well established) {4.4.1}. Reduction in food supply is by far the most frequently reported impact across all taxa and regions (well established) {4.4.1, 4.6.2}. In terrestrial systems, invasive alien plants are the taxonomic group most frequently reported as having a negative impact, particularly in cultivated areas and temperate and boreal forests (well established) {4.4.2.1}. For example, in north-western Europe Picea sitchensis (Sitka spruce) severely alters habitats such as coastal heathlands and mires, which are important habitats for threatened and endangered plants, birds and other species, and for local cultural heritage (well established) {4.3.2.1}. In coastal areas, invasive alien invertebrates are the most frequently reported taxonomic group with an impact on nature’s contributions to people, particularly provision of food (well established) {4.4.2.3}. For example, Carcinus maenas (European shore crab) has had an impact on commercial shellfish beds in New England and Canada, Asterias amurensis (northern Pacific seastar) and Ciona intestinalis (sea vase) have negatively affected mariculture and fisheries along the Korean coast, and Mytilopsis sallei (Caribbean false mussel) has displaced native clams and oysters that are locally important fishery resources in India (well established) {4.4.2.3}. In 2019, global annual costs of biological invasions were estimated to exceed US$423 billion, with variations across regions, but this is likely to be a gross underestimate (figure SPM.3) (established but incomplete) {box 4.13}. Ninety-two per cent of this cost is attributed to the damage that the invasive alien species have caused to nature’s contributions to people and good quality of life; only 8 per cent is related to the management expenditures for biological invasions (established but incomplete) {box 4.13}. Economic benefits are often gained by a few people or sectors while costs, often long-term ones, are borne by many others (established but incomplete) {3.2.3.5, 4.2.1, 6.2.2(6)}.

1. Some alien species have been intentionally introduced for their benefits to people, often without consideration or knowledge of their negative impacts.
   3.3.1
   well established
2. However, nearly 80 per cent of the documented impacts of invasive alien species on nature’s contributions to people are negative
   4.4.1
   well established
3. Reduction in food supply is by far the most frequently reported impact across all taxa and regions
   4.4.1, 4.6.2
   well established
4. In terrestrial systems, invasive alien plants are the taxonomic group most frequently reported as having a negative impact, particularly in cultivated areas and temperate and boreal forests.
   4.4.2.1
   well established
5. For example, in north-western Europe Picea sitchensis (Sitka spruce) severely alters habitats such as coastal heathlands and mires, which are important habitats for threatened and endangered plants, birds and other species, and for local cultural heritage
   4.3.2.1
   well established
6. In coastal areas, invasive alien invertebrates are the most frequently reported taxonomic group with an impact on nature’s contributions to people, particularly provision of food.
   4.4.2.3
   well established
7. For example, Carcinus maenas (European shore crab) has had an impact on commercial shellfish beds in New England and Canada, Asterias amurensis (northern Pacific seastar) and Ciona intestinalis (sea vase) have negatively affected mariculture and fisheries along the Korean coast, and Mytilopsis sallei (Caribbean false mussel) has displaced native clams and oysters that are locally important fishery resources in India.
   4.4.2.3
   well established
8. In 2019, global annual costs of biological invasions were estimated to exceed US$423 billion, with variations across regions, but this is likely to be a gross underestimate (figure SPM.3)
   box 4.13
   established but incomplete
9. Ninety-two per cent of this cost is attributed to the damage that the invasive alien species have caused to nature’s contributions to people and good quality of life; only 8 per cent is related to the management expenditures for biological invasions
   box 4.13
   established but incomplete
10. Economic benefits are often gained by a few people or sectors while costs, often long-term ones, are borne by many others
    3.2.3.5, 4.2.1, 6.2.2(6)
    established but incomplete

A4 -- bm_label

Invasive alien species adversely affect the full range of nature’s contributions to people, imposing an economic burden (well established) {4.4.1}.

1. Invasive alien species adversely affect the full range of nature’s contributions to people, imposing an economic burden
   4.4.1
   well established

A5 -- bm_description

Invasive alien species can threaten livelihoods, water and food security, economies and human health (e.g., causing diseases, allergies and physical injuries) (figure SPM.3) (well established) {4.5.1, 4.5.1.3}, with 85 per cent of the documented impacts of invasive alien species on good quality of life being negative (figure SPM.3) (well established) {4.5.1}. Invasive alien species can also serve as vectors for infectious zoonotic diseases that can lead to epidemics, such as malaria, dengue fever, chikungunya, Zika, yellow fever and West Nile fever, which are transmitted by invasive mosquito species (e.g., Aedes albopictus and Aedes aegyptii) (well established) {box 1.14, 4.5.1.3}. Invasive alien plants can impact human health directly, particularly through the production of highly allergenic pollen, for example, Prosopis juliflora (mesquite) and Ambrosia artemisiifolia (common ragweed) (well established) {4.5.1.3}. Indigenous Peoples and local communities, ethnic minorities, migrants, poor rural and urban communities are disproportionately impacted by invasive alien vector-borne diseases (established but incomplete) {4.5.1}. Although there is limited research on the interplay between gender relations and invasive alien species (established but incomplete) {4.5.1, 4.7.2}, there is some evidence of inequities and marginalization in gender- and age-specific activities where invasive alien species impede access to natural resources or require management (established but incomplete) {4.5.1, 5.2, 5.2.1, 5.5.5}. For example, in Lake Victoria artisanal fisheries mainly involving men have declined following the introduction, establishment and spread of the invasive alien plant Pontederia crassipes (water hyacinth), which has led to the depletion of tilapia (established but incomplete) {4.5.1}. In East Africa, management of the invasive alien plant Opuntia spp. (prickly pear) requires repeated weeding by hand, which is often undertaken by women and children and has in many cases become their most time-consuming activity (established but incomplete) {5.5.5}. Invasive alien species may be introduced for economic development, for example through financing large-scale infrastructures (well established) {3.2.5, 3.3.1.3, 3.3.1.4, box 3.11, 3.3.1.1, 3.3.2.1.1}. In some cases, invasive alien species have been unintentionally transported and introduced through emergency relief and aid (e.g., seeds of the invasive alien plant Parthenium hysterophorus (parthenium weed) arrived with grain in aid shipments in several countries) (well established) {3.2.2.3}, increasing the risk of possible negative impacts on quality of life (established but incomplete) {4.5.1, 4.6.3}.

1. Invasive alien species can threaten livelihoods, water and food security, economies and human health (e.g., causing diseases, allergies and physical injuries) (figure SPM.3)
   4.5.1, 4.5.1.3
   well established
2. Invasive alien species threaten livelihoods, water and food security, economies and human health with 85 per cent of the documented impacts of invasive alien species on good quality of life being negative.
   4.5.1
   well established
3. Invasive alien species can also serve as vectors for infectious zoonotic diseases that can lead to epidemics, such as malaria, dengue fever, chikungunya, Zika, yellow fever and West Nile fever, which are transmitted by invasive mosquito species (e.g., Aedes albopictus and Aedes aegyptii)
   box 1.14, 4.5.1.3
   well established
4. Invasive alien plants can impact human health directly, particularly through the production of highly allergenic pollen, for example, Prosopis juliflora (mesquite) and Ambrosia artemisiifolia (common ragweed)
   4.5.1.3
   well established
5. Indigenous Peoples and local communities, ethnic minorities, migrants, poor rural and urban communities are disproportionately impacted by invasive alien vector-borne diseases
   4.5.1
   established but incomplete
6. Although there is limited research on the interplay between gender relations and invasive alien species, invasive alien species disproportionately impact Indigenous Peoples and local communities, ethnic minorities, migrants, poor rural and urban communities.
   4.5.1, 4.7.2
   established but incomplete
7. There is some evidence of inequities and marginalization in gender- and age-specific activities where invasive alien species impede access to natural resources or require management.
   4.5.1, 5.2, 5.2.1, 5.5.5
   established but incomplete
8. For example, in Lake Victoria artisanal fisheries mainly involving men have declined following the introduction, establishment and spread of the invasive alien plant Pontederia crassipes (water hyacinth), which has led to the depletion of tilapia
   4.5.1
   established but incomplete
9. In East Africa, management of the invasive alien plant Opuntia spp. (prickly pear) requires repeated weeding by hand, which is often undertaken by women and children and has in many cases become their most time-consuming activity
   5.5.5
   established but incomplete
10. Invasive alien species may be introduced for economic development, for example through financing large-scale infrastructures
    3.2.5, 3.3.1.3, 3.3.1.4, box 3.11, 3.3.1.1, 3.3.2.1.1
    well established
11. In some cases, invasive alien species have been unintentionally transported and introduced through emergency relief and aid (e.g., seeds of the invasive alien plant Parthenium hysterophorus (parthenium weed) arrived with grain in aid shipments in several countries)
    3.2.2.3
    well established
12. Invasive alien species are increasing the risk of possible negative impacts on quality of life.
    4.5.1, 4.6.3
    established but incomplete

A5 -- bm_label

Invasive alien species overwhelmingly undermine good quality of life (established but incomplete) {4.5, 4.6.3}.

1. Invasive alien species overwhelmingly undermine good quality of life
   4.5, 4.6.3
   established but incomplete

Invasive alien species can add to marginalization and inequity, including, in some contexts, gender- and age-differentiated impacts {A5, A6}. (KM-A4)

A5 -- bm_description

Invasive alien species can threaten livelihoods, water and food security, economies and human health (e.g., causing diseases, allergies and physical injuries) (figure SPM.3) (well established) {4.5.1, 4.5.1.3}, with 85 per cent of the documented impacts of invasive alien species on good quality of life being negative (figure SPM.3) (well established) {4.5.1}. Invasive alien species can also serve as vectors for infectious zoonotic diseases that can lead to epidemics, such as malaria, dengue fever, chikungunya, Zika, yellow fever and West Nile fever, which are transmitted by invasive mosquito species (e.g., Aedes albopictus and Aedes aegyptii) (well established) {box 1.14, 4.5.1.3}. Invasive alien plants can impact human health directly, particularly through the production of highly allergenic pollen, for example, Prosopis juliflora (mesquite) and Ambrosia artemisiifolia (common ragweed) (well established) {4.5.1.3}. Indigenous Peoples and local communities, ethnic minorities, migrants, poor rural and urban communities are disproportionately impacted by invasive alien vector-borne diseases (established but incomplete) {4.5.1}. Although there is limited research on the interplay between gender relations and invasive alien species (established but incomplete) {4.5.1, 4.7.2}, there is some evidence of inequities and marginalization in gender- and age-specific activities where invasive alien species impede access to natural resources or require management (established but incomplete) {4.5.1, 5.2, 5.2.1, 5.5.5}. For example, in Lake Victoria artisanal fisheries mainly involving men have declined following the introduction, establishment and spread of the invasive alien plant Pontederia crassipes (water hyacinth), which has led to the depletion of tilapia (established but incomplete) {4.5.1}. In East Africa, management of the invasive alien plant Opuntia spp. (prickly pear) requires repeated weeding by hand, which is often undertaken by women and children and has in many cases become their most time-consuming activity (established but incomplete) {5.5.5}. Invasive alien species may be introduced for economic development, for example through financing large-scale infrastructures (well established) {3.2.5, 3.3.1.3, 3.3.1.4, box 3.11, 3.3.1.1, 3.3.2.1.1}. In some cases, invasive alien species have been unintentionally transported and introduced through emergency relief and aid (e.g., seeds of the invasive alien plant Parthenium hysterophorus (parthenium weed) arrived with grain in aid shipments in several countries) (well established) {3.2.2.3}, increasing the risk of possible negative impacts on quality of life (established but incomplete) {4.5.1, 4.6.3}.

1. Invasive alien species can threaten livelihoods, water and food security, economies and human health (e.g., causing diseases, allergies and physical injuries) (figure SPM.3)
   4.5.1, 4.5.1.3
   well established
2. Invasive alien species threaten livelihoods, water and food security, economies and human health with 85 per cent of the documented impacts of invasive alien species on good quality of life being negative.
   4.5.1
   well established
3. Invasive alien species can also serve as vectors for infectious zoonotic diseases that can lead to epidemics, such as malaria, dengue fever, chikungunya, Zika, yellow fever and West Nile fever, which are transmitted by invasive mosquito species (e.g., Aedes albopictus and Aedes aegyptii)
   box 1.14, 4.5.1.3
   well established
4. Invasive alien plants can impact human health directly, particularly through the production of highly allergenic pollen, for example, Prosopis juliflora (mesquite) and Ambrosia artemisiifolia (common ragweed)
   4.5.1.3
   well established
5. Indigenous Peoples and local communities, ethnic minorities, migrants, poor rural and urban communities are disproportionately impacted by invasive alien vector-borne diseases
   4.5.1
   established but incomplete
6. Although there is limited research on the interplay between gender relations and invasive alien species, invasive alien species disproportionately impact Indigenous Peoples and local communities, ethnic minorities, migrants, poor rural and urban communities.
   4.5.1, 4.7.2
   established but incomplete
7. There is some evidence of inequities and marginalization in gender- and age-specific activities where invasive alien species impede access to natural resources or require management.
   4.5.1, 5.2, 5.2.1, 5.5.5
   established but incomplete
8. For example, in Lake Victoria artisanal fisheries mainly involving men have declined following the introduction, establishment and spread of the invasive alien plant Pontederia crassipes (water hyacinth), which has led to the depletion of tilapia
   4.5.1
   established but incomplete
9. In East Africa, management of the invasive alien plant Opuntia spp. (prickly pear) requires repeated weeding by hand, which is often undertaken by women and children and has in many cases become their most time-consuming activity
   5.5.5
   established but incomplete
10. Invasive alien species may be introduced for economic development, for example through financing large-scale infrastructures
    3.2.5, 3.3.1.3, 3.3.1.4, box 3.11, 3.3.1.1, 3.3.2.1.1
    well established
11. In some cases, invasive alien species have been unintentionally transported and introduced through emergency relief and aid (e.g., seeds of the invasive alien plant Parthenium hysterophorus (parthenium weed) arrived with grain in aid shipments in several countries)
    3.2.2.3
    well established
12. Invasive alien species are increasing the risk of possible negative impacts on quality of life.
    4.5.1, 4.6.3
    established but incomplete

A5 -- bm_label

Invasive alien species overwhelmingly undermine good quality of life (established but incomplete) {4.5, 4.6.3}.

1. Invasive alien species overwhelmingly undermine good quality of life
   4.5, 4.6.3
   established but incomplete

A6 -- bm_description

More than 2,300 invasive alien species have been documented on lands managed, used and/or owned by Indigenous Peoples, with some negatively affecting their quality of life and cultural identities. Indigenous lands in Oceania and North America have particularly high numbers of recorded invasive alien species (established but incomplete) {box 2.6}. However, numbers of invasive alien species are, on average, consistently lower on Indigenous lands compared to other lands (established but incomplete) {box 2.6}. Many Indigenous Peoples and local communities emphasize the inter-relatedness of the land, water and humans and other species, which can lead to a range of diverse perceptions of specific invasive alien species (well established) {1.6.7.1}. In some cases, Indigenous Peoples and local communities may consider an invasive alien species a valued part of their nature (established but incomplete) {1.6.7.1}. There are also examples where Indigenous Peoples and local communities have created new income sources by relying on invasive alien species (well established) {4.5.1, 4.6.2}, but that often occurs through necessity rather than choice. However, impact reports by some Indigenous Peoples and local communities document 68 per cent negative impacts and 32 per cent positive impacts on their good quality of life caused by invasive alien species (established but incomplete) {table 4.33}. Indigenous Peoples and local communities often have a good understanding of how the complex interactions among drivers facilitate the introduction and spread of invasive alien species on their lands (established but incomplete) {3.2.3.6, box 3.15}. For example, Indigenous Peoples and local communities recognize that the use of invasive alien species for food, fibre, income generation or medicinal purposes can cause negative impacts on nature’s contributions to people and their good quality of life (well established) {3.2.3.6, box 3.6}, especially in situations where the native species they traditionally depended on for those benefits have declined (established but incomplete) {3.2.3.6; 3.2.5}. Impact reports by some Indigenous Peoples and local communities document 92 per cent negative impacts and 8 per cent positive impacts on nature caused by invasive alien species (established but incomplete) {table 4.31}. Negative impact reports include water security and human and livestock health, as well as acknowledging that invasive alien species limit access to traditional lands, reduce mobility and require increased labour to manage (established but incomplete) {box 4.9, 4.5.1, 4.5.1.4, 4.6.3.1, 4.6.3.2, 5.5.5}. Invasive alien species can also adversely affect the autonomy, rights and cultural identity of Indigenous Peoples and local communities (established but incomplete) {box 4.15} through the loss of traditional livelihoods, knowledge and cultural practices (well established) {4.6.3.2}, often leading to general feelings of despair, sadness and stress (established but incomplete) {4.6.3.2}.

1. More than 2,300 invasive alien species have been documented on lands managed, used and/or owned by Indigenous Peoples, with some negatively affecting their quality of life and cultural identities. Indigenous lands in Oceania and North America have particularly high numbers of recorded invasive alien species.
   box 2.6
   established but incomplete
2. However, numbers of invasive alien species are, on average, consistently lower on Indigenous lands compared to other lands.
   box 2.6
   established but incomplete
3. Many Indigenous Peoples and local communities emphasize the inter-relatedness of the land, water and humans and other species, which can lead to a range of diverse perceptions of specific invasive alien species
   1.6.7.1
   well established
4. In some cases, Indigenous Peoples and local communities may consider an invasive alien species a valued part of their nature
   1.6.7.1
   established but incomplete
5. There are also examples where Indigenous Peoples and local communities have created new income sources by relying on invasive alien species
   4.5.1, 4.6.2
   well established
6. but that often occurs through necessity rather than choice. However, impact reports by some Indigenous Peoples and local communities document 68 per cent negative impacts and 32 per cent positive impacts on their good quality of life caused by invasive alien species
   table 4.33
   established but incomplete
7. Indigenous Peoples and local communities often have a good understanding of how the complex interactions among drivers facilitate the introduction and spread of invasive alien species on their lands
   3.2.3.6, box 3.15
   established but incomplete
8. For example, Indigenous Peoples and local communities recognize that the use of invasive alien species for food, fibre, income generation or medicinal purposes can cause negative impacts on nature’s contributions to people and their good quality of life
   3.2.3.6, box 3.6
   well established
9. Indigenous Peoples and local communities recognize that the use of invasive alien species for food, fibre, income generation or medicinal purposes can cause negative impacts on nature’s contributions to people and their good quality of life, especially in situations where the native species they traditionally depended on for those benefits have declined.
   3.2.3.6; 3.2.5
   established but incomplete
10. Impact reports by some Indigenous Peoples and local communities document 92 per cent negative impacts and 8 per cent positive impacts on nature caused by invasive alien species
    table 4.31
    established but incomplete
11. Negative impact reports include water security and human and livestock health, as well as acknowledging that invasive alien species limit access to traditional lands, reduce mobility and require increased labour to manage
    box 4.9, 4.5.1, 4.5.1.4, 4.6.3.1, 4.6.3.2, 5.5.5
    established but incomplete
12. Invasive alien species can also adversely affect the autonomy, rights and cultural identity of Indigenous Peoples and local communities
    box 4.15
    established but incomplete
13. Invasive alien species can adversely affect the autonomy, rights and cultural identity of Indigenous Peoples and local communities through the loss of traditional livelihoods, knowledge and cultural practices.
    4.6.3.2
    well established
14. Invasive alien species can often lead to general feelings of despair, sadness and stress.
    4.6.3.2
    established but incomplete

A6 -- bm_label

Many invasive alien species have been documented on lands managed, used and/or owned by Indigenous Peoples and local communities (established but incomplete) {box 2.6; 4.6}.

1. Many invasive alien species have been documented on lands managed, used and/or owned by Indigenous Peoples and local communities
   box 2.6; 4.6
   established but incomplete

Overall, policies and their implementation have been insufficient in managing biological invasions and preventing and controlling invasive alien species {A7, A8}. (KM-A5)

A7 -- bm_description

Perceptions of specific invasive alien species and their value differ among and within stakeholder groups and Indigenous Peoples and local communities, as different community members can experience different impacts depending on gender, age, livelihood and a multitude of other factors (established but incomplete) {1.5.2, 1.6.7.1, 3.2.1, 5.6.1.2}. Value conflicts arise when invasive alien species are considered to be a major threat by some stakeholders and beneficial by others (well established) {5.6.1.2}. An invasive alien species may have been intentionally introduced for a particular purpose, including to mitigate other drivers of change (well established) {box 3.9}, but can have negative impacts on other sectors (well established) {3.3.1.1, 3.2.5, 5.6.1.2}. For example, introduced pigs are important culturally in Hawaii and are hunted for subsistence, ceremony and recreation, despite causing severe negative impacts by driving and maintaining the spread of invasive alien plants within Hawaiian rainforest (established but incomplete) {5.6.1.2}. Divergence of perceptions of invasive alien species can prevent effective decision-making and management (established but incomplete) {5.6.1.2, 6.2.2(9)}. The management of invasive alien species can, in some cases, raise multiple ethical debates about animal welfare and rights (well established) {1.5.3, 5.6.2.1, box 6.13} (e.g., the challenges of effectively managing the biological invasion of Hippopotamus amphibius (African hippopotamus) in Colombia due to it being considered a charismatic species) (established but incomplete) {5.4.3.1}.

1. Perceptions of specific invasive alien species and their value differ among and within stakeholder groups and Indigenous Peoples and local communities, as different community members can experience different impacts depending on gender, age, livelihood and a multitude of other factors
   1.5.2, 1.6.7.1, 3.2.1, 5.6.1.2
   established but incomplete
2. Value conflicts arise when invasive alien species are considered to be a major threat by some stakeholders and beneficial by others
   5.6.1.2
   well established
3. An invasive alien species may have been intentionally introduced for a particular purpose, including to mitigate other drivers of change.
   box 3.9
   well established
4. An invasive alien species may have been intentionally introduced for a particular purpose, including to mitigate other drivers of change, but can have negative impacts on other sectors.
   3.3.1.1, 3.2.5, 5.6.1.2
   well established
5. For example, introduced pigs are important culturally in Hawaii and are hunted for subsistence, ceremony and recreation, despite causing severe negative impacts by driving and maintaining the spread of invasive alien plants within Hawaiian rainforest.
   5.6.1.2
   established but incomplete
6. Divergence of perceptions of invasive alien species can prevent effective decision-making and management
   5.6.1.2, 6.2.2(9)
   established but incomplete
7. The management of invasive alien species can, in some cases, raise multiple ethical debates about animal welfare and rights
   1.5.3, 5.6.2.1, box 6.13
   well established
8. (e.g., the challenges of effectively managing the biological invasion of Hippopotamus amphibius (African hippopotamus) in Colombia due to it being considered a charismatic species)
   5.4.3.1
   established but incomplete

A7 -- bm_label

Perceptions of the threat of invasive alien species can vary depending on different human perspectives (well established) {1.5.2}.

1. Perceptions of the threat of invasive alien species can vary depending on different human perspectives
   1.5.2
   well established

A8 -- bm_description

Most countries (80 per cent, 156 out of 196) have targets for the management of biological invasions within their national biodiversity strategies and action plans, 74 per cent (145) of which are aligned with Aichi Biodiversity Target 9 (well established) {6.1.2}. Assessment of the progress towards meeting Aichi Biodiversity Target 9 concluded that there was still a considerable gap between the development and adoption of invasive alien species policy and implementation at national levels (well established) {6.1.2}. Although the number of countries with national invasive alien species checklists, including databases, has more than doubled in the last decade (196 countries in 2022) (table SPM.A3) {6.1.3}, 83 per cent do not have national legislation or regulations specifically on invasive alien species (well established) {6.1.3}, which also increases the risk of biological invasions for neighbouring countries (well established) {6.3.2.1}. Only 17 per cent of countries have national legislation for biological invasions, whereas an estimated 69 per cent have biological invasions-specific legislation as part of legislation in other sectors (well established) {6.1.2, 6.1.3}. Although many agribusinesses do not manage the risk of the plants they trade (established but incomplete) {5.6.2.1}, in some cases the business sector has developed voluntary codes of conduct in tandem with government regulations (box SPM.1) (well established) {5.4.1, 6.3.1.4(4), box 6.7}. It should be noted, however, that voluntary codes of conduct are intended to complement, not replace, obligations within national legislation that regulate activities that transport, sell or use alien species (well established) {6.3.1.4(4)}. The transport of invasive alien species along trade supply chains (e.g., in shipping containers) may be poorly managed and consequently may constitute a biosecurity risk (well established) {5.6.2.2}. There are many reasons for the limited adoption, implementation and efficacy of policy instruments, including varying capacity and resources across regions (well established) {6.2.2(7), 5.6.2.2} and lack of coordination, with unclear roles and responsibilities among government agencies, stakeholders and Indigenous Peoples and local communities (well established) {6.2.2(3), 6.2.2(7), 6.2.3, 6.7.2.5}. Nearly half of all countries (45 per cent) do not invest in management of biological invasions (Sustainable Development Goal indicator 15.8.1) (established but incomplete) {6.1.3}. Lack of awareness of the need for collective and coordinated responses can also hinder implementation {6.1.1, 6.2.2(9)}. B. Globally, invasive alien species and their impacts are increasing rapidly and are predicted to continue rising in the future

1. Most countries (80 per cent, 156 out of 196) have targets for the management of biological invasions within their national biodiversity strategies and action plans, 74 per cent (145) of which are aligned with Aichi Biodiversity Target 9
   6.1.2
   well established
2. Assessment of the progress towards meeting Aichi Biodiversity Target 9 concluded that there was still a considerable gap between the development and adoption of invasive alien species policy and implementation at national levels
   6.1.2
   well established
3. Although the number of countries with national invasive alien species checklists, including databases, has more than doubled in the last decade (196 countries in 2022) (table SPM.A3), there was still a considerable gap between the development and adoption of invasive alien species policy and implementation at national levels.
   6.1.3
   n/a
4. 83 per cent of countries do not have national legislation or regulations specifically on invasive alien species
   6.1.3
   well established
5. 83 per cent of countries do not have national legislation or regulations specifically on invasive alien species, which also increases the risk of biological invasions for neighbouring countries.
   6.3.2.1
   well established
6. Only 17 per cent of countries have national legislation for biological invasions, whereas an estimated 69 per cent have biological invasions-specific legislation as part of legislation in other sectors.
   6.1.2, 6.1.3
   well established
7. Although many agribusinesses do not manage the risk of the plants they trade
   5.6.2.1
   established but incomplete
8. In some cases the business sector has developed voluntary codes of conduct in tandem with government regulations (box SPM.1)
   5.4.1, 6.3.1.4(4), box 6.7
   well established
9. It should be noted, however, that voluntary codes of conduct are intended to complement, not replace, obligations within national legislation that regulate activities that transport, sell or use alien species.
   6.3.1.4(4)
   well established
10. The transport of invasive alien species along trade supply chains (e.g., in shipping containers) may be poorly managed and consequently may constitute a biosecurity risk
    5.6.2.2
    well established
11. There are many reasons for the limited adoption, implementation and efficacy of policy instruments, including varying capacity and resources across regions
    6.2.2(7), 5.6.2.2
    well established
12. There are many reasons for the limited adoption, implementation and efficacy of policy instruments, including varying capacity and resources across regions and lack of coordination, with unclear roles and responsibilities among government agencies, stakeholders and Indigenous Peoples and local communities
    6.2.2(3), 6.2.2(7), 6.2.3, 6.7.2.5
    well established
13. Nearly half of all countries (45 per cent) do not invest in management of biological invasions (Sustainable Development Goal indicator 15.8.1)
    6.1.3
    established but incomplete
14. Lack of awareness of the need for collective and coordinated responses can also hinder implementation
    6.1.1, 6.2.2(9)
    n/a
15. B. Globally, invasive alien species and their impacts are increasing rapidly and are predicted to continue rising in the future
    n/a
    n/a

A8 -- bm_label

Current policy instruments for biological invasions have led to only partial progress towards international targets on invasive alien species, including Aichi Biodiversity Target 9 and Sustainable Development Goal Target 15.8 (well established) {6.1.2, 6.1.3}.

1. Current policy instruments for biological invasions have led to only partial progress towards international targets on invasive alien species, including Aichi Biodiversity Target 9 and Sustainable Development Goal Target 15.8
   6.1.2, 6.1.3
   well established

Many human activities facilitate the transport, introduction, establishment and spread of invasive alien species {B9, B11, B12, B14} (figure SPM.5). (KM-B1)

B11 -- bm_description

There has been a fivefold increase in the size of the global economy over the last 50 years (well established) {3.1.1}. International trade, which has increased nearly tenfold over the same period, represents the most important pathway through which invasive alien species are transported worldwide (figure SPM.5) (well established) {3.1.1, 3.2.3.1}. There is a strong link between the volume of commodity imports and the number of invasive alien species in a region, and patterns in the global spread of species mirror shipping and air traffic networks (well established) {3.2.3.1}. The construction of shipping canals (e.g., Suez, Panama) has connected previously separated marine and freshwater regions, facilitating the spread of invasive alien species through species migration, ballast water transfers (box SPM.2) and biofouling (well established) {3.2.3.1, 3.3.1.3}. For example, 150 years after the opening of the Suez Canal, marine alien species are still being newly recorded in the Mediterranean Sea (well established) {box 3.7}. Biosecurity measures at international borders have not kept pace with the growing volume, diversity and origins of global trade (including e-trade) and travel (well established) {3.2.4.2, 3.2.3.4, 5.6.2.2}. Projected growth in international trade and the movement of people, including tourism, will lead to further pressure on border inspection regimes and could soon overwhelm the biosecurity capability of most countries (well established) {3.2.3.1, 6.3.1.4}. Box SPM.2. The International Convention for the Control and Management of Ships’ Ballast Water and Sediments: an example of international collaboration to prevent biological invasions Many invasive alien species have been introduced to coastal and inland water ecosystems globally through ballast water discharges {3.2.3.1}. For example, @T its introduction via ballast water discharge, Dreissena polymorpha (zebra mussel) has become widespread in the Great Lakes of North America {box 2.9}. Dreissena polymorpha has been implicated in the transfer of botulinum toxin to higher trophic levels, which has been further facilitated by climate change, specifically by increased water temperatures, leading to mortality of waterfowl in the Great Lakes {box 4.5}. Furthermore, the shells of Dreissena polymorpha can cause skin injuries to recreational swimmers and commercial fishers {box 4.15}. The International Maritime Organization has developed an international instrument to address the transfer of harmful aquatic organisms and pathogens in ballast water of maritime vessels {5.5.1}. The International Convention for the Control and Management of Ships’ Ballast Water and Sediments was adopted by the International Maritime Organization in 2004 and came into force in 2017 {5.5.1}. It is the first international legally binding legislation requiring ships to manage their ballast water so that aquatic organisms and pathogens are eliminated before the ballast water is released in a new location {3.2.3.1, 5.5.1, 6.1.3, 6.31}. While the global efficacy of ballast water management cannot be assessed yet, there is evidence that it has reduced invasive alien species introductions in the Great Lakes of North America {5.5.1}: between 1959 and 2006, one new alien species was discovered every seven months, but there was an abrupt shift (85 per cent decline) in the number of newly established alien species following the implementation of the ballast water regulations by Canada and the United States of America in 2006 and 2008 respectively {box 2.9}. Dreissena polymorpha (zebra mussel) was introduced through ballast water discharge in the Great Lakes of North America, causing a negative impact on nature, nature’s contributions to people, and good quality of life.

1. There has been a fivefold increase in the size of the global economy over the last 50 years.
   3.1.1
   well established
2. International trade, which has increased nearly tenfold over the same period, represents the most important pathway through which invasive alien species are transported worldwide (figure SPM.5)
   3.1.1, 3.2.3.1
   well established
3. There is a strong link between the volume of commodity imports and the number of invasive alien species in a region, and patterns in the global spread of species mirror shipping and air traffic networks
   3.2.3.1
   well established
4. The construction of shipping canals (e.g., Suez, Panama) has connected previously separated marine and freshwater regions, facilitating the spread of invasive alien species through species migration, ballast water transfers (box SPM.2) and biofouling
   3.2.3.1, 3.3.1.3
   well established
5. For example, 150 years after the opening of the Suez Canal, marine alien species are still being newly recorded in the Mediterranean Sea
   box 3.7
   well established
6. Biosecurity measures at international borders have not kept pace with the growing volume, diversity and origins of global trade (including e-trade) and travel.
   3.2.4.2, 3.2.3.4, 5.6.2.2
   well established
7. Projected growth in international trade and the movement of people, including tourism, will lead to further pressure on border inspection regimes and could soon overwhelm the biosecurity capability of most countries
   3.2.3.1, 6.3.1.4
   well established
8. Box SPM.2. The International Convention for the Control and Management of Ships’ Ballast Water and Sediments: an example of international collaboration to prevent biological invasions Many invasive alien species have been introduced to coastal and inland water ecosystems globally through ballast water discharges
   3.2.3.1
   n/a
9. For example, many invasive alien species have been introduced via ballast water discharge, and Dreissena polymorpha (zebra mussel) has become widespread in the Great Lakes of North America.
   box 2.9
   n/a
10. Dreissena polymorpha has been implicated in the transfer of botulinum toxin to higher trophic levels, which has been further facilitated by climate change, specifically by increased water temperatures, leading to mortality of waterfowl in the Great Lakes
    box 4.5
    n/a
11. Furthermore, the shells of Dreissena polymorpha can cause skin injuries to recreational swimmers and commercial fishers
    box 4.15
    n/a
12. The International Maritime Organization has developed an international instrument to address the transfer of harmful aquatic organisms and pathogens in ballast water of maritime vessels
    5.5.1
    n/a
13. The International Convention for the Control and Management of Ships’ Ballast Water and Sediments was adopted by the International Maritime Organization in 2004 and came into force in 2017
    5.5.1
    n/a
14. It is the first international legally binding legislation requiring ships to manage their ballast water so that aquatic organisms and pathogens are eliminated before the ballast water is released in a new location
    3.2.3.1, 5.5.1, 6.1.3, 6.31
    n/a
15. While the global efficacy of ballast water management cannot be assessed yet, there is evidence that it has reduced invasive alien species introductions in the Great Lakes of North America
    5.5.1
    n/a
16. Between 1959 and 2006, one new alien species was discovered every seven months, but there was an abrupt shift (85 per cent decline) in the number of newly established alien species following the implementation of the ballast water regulations by Canada and the United States of America in 2006 and 2008 respectively.
    box 2.9
    n/a
17. Dreissena polymorpha (zebra mussel) was introduced through ballast water discharge in the Great Lakes of North America, causing a negative impact on nature, nature’s contributions to people, and good quality of life.
    n/a
    n/a

B11 -- bm_label

The increase in the transport and introduction of invasive alien species worldwide is primarily influenced by economic drivers, especially the expansion of global trade and human travel (figure SPM.5) (well established) {2.1.2, 3.1.1, 3.2.3}.

1. The increase in the transport and introduction of invasive alien species worldwide is primarily influenced by economic drivers, especially the expansion of global trade and human travel (figure SPM.5)
   2.1.2, 3.1.1, 3.2.3
   well established

B12 -- bm_description

Land- and sea-use changes may increase the vulnerability of natural ecosystems to the establishment and spread of invasive alien species through increasing fragmentation and habitat disturbance, for example by changing grazing, fire regimes, soil disturbance, or watershed flow (well established) {3.3.1.2, 3.3.1.5}. Transportation and utility infrastructures such as roads, tracks, railways, pipelines, canals and bridges, among others, can create corridors that facilitate the spread of invasive alien species, including into remote, undisturbed and protected areas (well established) {3.3.1.3, box 2.7, box 3.7}. Marine and aquatic infrastructure may alter seascapes and the functioning of marine ecosystems, facilitating the spread of invasive alien species (established but incomplete) {3.2.2.4, 3.3.1.4, 5.6.1.4}. The numbers of invasive alien species were reported to be 1.5 to 2.5 times higher on pontoons and pilings than on natural rocky reefs (established but incomplete) {3.3.1.4}. More generally, land-use change can facilitate biological invasions through alteration of processes that cause natural disturbance of landscapes, such as wildfire or grazing regimes (established but incomplete) {3.3.1.5}. In several regions of the world, grazing by feral alien ungulates (horses, camels, buffalo, pigs) facilitates the spread of invasive alien plants, sometimes through complex species interactions involving the suppression of native species and the facilitation of other alien species (well established) {3.3.1.5.1}. As a specific example, invasive alien ungulates (wild boar, deer) can transport invasive ectomycorrhizal (root associated symbiotic) fungi, which are beneficial for the establishment and spread of alien pine trees, over long distances, rendering habitats susceptible to pine invasion (well established) {box 3.10}. Climate change, along with the continued intensification and expansion of land-use change may lead to future increases in the establishment and spread of invasive alien species in disturbed habitats and in nearby natural habitats (established but incomplete) {3.3.4}.

1. Land- and sea-use changes may increase the vulnerability of natural ecosystems to the establishment and spread of invasive alien species through increasing fragmentation and habitat disturbance, for example by changing grazing, fire regimes, soil disturbance, or watershed flow.
   3.3.1.2, 3.3.1.5
   well established
2. Transportation and utility infrastructures such as roads, tracks, railways, pipelines, canals and bridges, among others, can create corridors that facilitate the spread of invasive alien species, including into remote, undisturbed and protected areas
   3.3.1.3, box 2.7, box 3.7
   well established
3. Marine and aquatic infrastructure may alter seascapes and the functioning of marine ecosystems, facilitating the spread of invasive alien species
   3.2.2.4, 3.3.1.4, 5.6.1.4
   established but incomplete
4. The numbers of invasive alien species were reported to be 1.5 to 2.5 times higher on pontoons and pilings than on natural rocky reefs
   3.3.1.4
   established but incomplete
5. More generally, land-use change can facilitate biological invasions through alteration of processes that cause natural disturbance of landscapes, such as wildfire or grazing regimes
   3.3.1.5
   established but incomplete
6. In several regions of the world, grazing by feral alien ungulates (horses, camels, buffalo, pigs) facilitates the spread of invasive alien plants, sometimes through complex species interactions involving the suppression of native species and the facilitation of other alien species
   3.3.1.5.1
   well established
7. As a specific example, invasive alien ungulates (wild boar, deer) can transport invasive ectomycorrhizal (root associated symbiotic) fungi, which are beneficial for the establishment and spread of alien pine trees, over long distances, rendering habitats susceptible to pine invasion
   box 3.10
   well established
8. Climate change, along with the continued intensification and expansion of land-use change may lead to future increases in the establishment and spread of invasive alien species in disturbed habitats and in nearby natural habitats
   3.3.4
   established but incomplete

B12 -- bm_label

Accelerated establishment and spread of invasive alien species within countries are primarily driven by direct drivers, notably changes in land- and sea-use (figure SPM.5) (well established) {2.2.1, 3.3.1, 3.6.2}.

1. Accelerated establishment and spread of invasive alien species within countries are primarily driven by direct drivers, notably changes in land- and sea-use (figure SPM.5)
   2.2.1, 3.3.1, 3.6.2
   well established

B14 -- bm_description

There are often time lags in detection and reporting of newly introduced invasive alien species (well established) {2.2.1}. Some invasive alien species spread very rapidly, while others take longer to spread and fully occupy their potential ranges (well established) {2.2.1, 2.2.3}. For some invasive alien species, the impact is immediate and continues into the long-term (e.g., fast-spreading pathogens such as Zika virus and Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (chytrid fungus), and fast-spreading predators such as lionfish), while for others there may be a considerable time lag, spanning decades in some cases, before the impact is apparent (e.g., many invasive alien trees) (well established) {1.5}. Such time lags can lead to people not perceiving the ongoing slow changes in their environment, including the impacts of invasive alien species (well established) {1.5.2}. There can also be significant time lags in the response of invasive alien species to various drivers because the underlying processes that facilitate biological invasions operate at varying temporal scales (short- to long-term) (well established) {1.5, 3.2.3.1, 3.6.3}. Invasive alien species may increase in numbers after a long period at low density as a result of changes in interactions with other species, for example as a result of the introduction of a missing dispersal agent or the removal of a competitor (3.3.5.1). For example, in the western United States, the invasive alien Carcinus maenas (European shore crab) reduced the abundance of a native clam, releasing another alien species, Gemma gemma (the amethyst gem clam), from competition, allowing it to become superabundant and to spread, after having been locally distributed and at low abundance for over 50 years (well established) {3.3.5.1}. Patterns in the numbers of alien species seen today reflect the drivers of decades ago (i.e., invasion debt) (established but incomplete) {3.1.1, 3.1.5}. Consequently, past and ongoing amplification of drivers may lead to a long legacy of future invasive alien species as, for example, the number of new alien species that become invasive increases over time (i.e., invasion debt) (established but incomplete) {2.3.1.5, 3.1.5, 3.6.3}. C. Invasive alien species and their negative impacts can be prevented and mitigated through effective management

1. There are often time lags in detection and reporting of newly introduced invasive alien species.
   2.2.1
   well established
2. Some invasive alien species spread very rapidly, while others take longer to spread and fully occupy their potential ranges
   2.2.1, 2.2.3
   well established
3. For some invasive alien species, the impact is immediate and continues into the long-term (e.g., fast-spreading pathogens such as Zika virus and Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (chytrid fungus), and fast-spreading predators such as lionfish), while for others there may be a considerable time lag, spanning decades in some cases, before the impact is apparent (e.g., many invasive alien trees).
   1.5
   well established
4. Such time lags can lead to people not perceiving the ongoing slow changes in their environment, including the impacts of invasive alien species
   1.5.2
   well established
5. There can also be significant time lags in the response of invasive alien species to various drivers because the underlying processes that facilitate biological invasions operate at varying temporal scales (short- to long-term).
   1.5, 3.2.3.1, 3.6.3
   well established
6. Invasive alien species may increase in numbers after a long period at low density as a result of changes in interactions with other species, for example as a result of the introduction of a missing dispersal agent or the removal of a competitor (3.3.5.1). For example, in the western United States, the invasive alien Carcinus maenas (European shore crab) reduced the abundance of a native clam, releasing another alien species, Gemma gemma (the amethyst gem clam), from competition, allowing it to become superabundant and to spread, after having been locally distributed and at low abundance for over 50 years
   3.3.5.1
   well established
7. Patterns in the numbers of alien species seen today reflect the drivers of decades ago (i.e., invasion debt)
   3.1.1, 3.1.5
   established but incomplete
8. Consequently, past and ongoing amplification of drivers may lead to a long legacy of future invasive alien species as, for example, the number of new alien species that become invasive increases over time (i.e., invasion debt)
   2.3.1.5, 3.1.5, 3.6.3
   established but incomplete
9. Invasive alien species and their negative impacts can be prevented and mitigated through effective management.
   n/a
   n/a

B14 -- bm_label

Negative impacts of invasive alien species can occur long after first introduction, and currently observed threats from invasive alien species can lead to an underestimation of the magnitude of the future impact (well established) {1.4.4, 2.2.1}.

1. Negative impacts of invasive alien species can occur long after first introduction, and currently observed threats from invasive alien species can lead to an underestimation of the magnitude of the future impact
   1.4.4, 2.2.1
   n/a

B9 -- bm_description

The transport and introduction of an invasive alien species can be intentional or unintentional, or in some cases both (well established) {3.2, 3.3}. Historically, many invasive alien species have been intentionally introduced outside their natural range around the world for their perceived benefits to people, without consideration or knowledge of their negative impacts (well established) {3.2.1, 3.2.3, 3.3.1, 3.3.2}. For example, invasive alien species are often used in forestry, agriculture, horticulture, aquaculture and as pets (well established) {3.2.3.2, 3.3.1.1}. In the Mediterranean basin alone, more than 35 per cent of alien freshwater fish have arisen from aquaculture (well established) {3.3.1.1.1}. Invasive alien species have also been intentionally introduced for recreation and amenity (well established) {3.2.1, 3.2.3.3} and for soil stabilization (well established) {3.3.1.1.2, 3.3.1.6, 3.3.4.6}. Many invasive alien species have also been introduced unintentionally, including as contaminants of soils and traded goods, stowaways in shipments (well established) {3.2.3.1, 3.2.3.2, 3.2.3.4}, stowaways in ballast water and sediments, and as biofouling organisms that attach themselves to ships’ hulls and other surfaces on vessels (well established) {3.2.3.1, 3.2.5, 3.3.2.3, box 3.7}. Additionally, online trade in animals, plants and other organisms is contributing to the introduction of invasive alien species worldwide (well established) {2.1.2, 3.2.4.2}. Progressive degradation of nature, including from pollution and fragmentation of ecosystems, has facilitated the establishment and spread of invasive alien species (well established) {3.3.1.2, 3.3.1.3, 3.3.1.5, 3.3.1.6, 3.3.3}. Demographic drivers also facilitate the introduction and spread of invasive alien species, although it is acknowledged that drivers differ across regions (well established) {3.2.2}. In the last 50 years, the number of people in the world has more than doubled, consumption has tripled, and global trade has grown nearly tenfold, with shifting patterns across regions (well established) {3.1.1}. This acceleration of the world economy is increasing the rate and magnitude of many direct and indirect drivers, particularly those related to trade, travel and land- and sea-use change, leading to further biological invasions (well established) {3.1.1, 3.2.2}.

1. The transport and introduction of an invasive alien species can be intentional or unintentional, or in some cases both.
   3.2, 3.3
   well established
2. Historically, many invasive alien species have been intentionally introduced outside their natural range around the world for their perceived benefits to people, without consideration or knowledge of their negative impacts.
   3.2.1, 3.2.3, 3.3.1, 3.3.2
   well established
3. For example, invasive alien species are often used in forestry, agriculture, horticulture, aquaculture and as pets
   3.2.3.2, 3.3.1.1
   well established
4. In the Mediterranean basin alone, more than 35 per cent of alien freshwater fish have arisen from aquaculture
   3.3.1.1.1
   well established
5. Invasive alien species have also been intentionally introduced for recreation and amenity
   3.2.1, 3.2.3.3
   well established
6. Invasive alien species have been intentionally introduced for soil stabilization.
   3.3.1.1.2, 3.3.1.6, 3.3.4.6
   well established
7. Many invasive alien species have also been introduced unintentionally, including as contaminants of soils and traded goods, stowaways in shipments
   3.2.3.1, 3.2.3.2, 3.2.3.4
   well established
8. Many invasive alien species have been introduced unintentionally as stowaways in ballast water and sediments, and as biofouling organisms that attach themselves to ships’ hulls and other surfaces on vessels.
   3.2.3.1, 3.2.5, 3.3.2.3, box 3.7
   well established
9. Additionally, online trade in animals, plants and other organisms is contributing to the introduction of invasive alien species worldwide
   2.1.2, 3.2.4.2
   well established
10. Progressive degradation of nature, including from pollution and fragmentation of ecosystems, has facilitated the establishment and spread of invasive alien species
    3.3.1.2, 3.3.1.3, 3.3.1.5, 3.3.1.6, 3.3.3
    well established
11. Demographic drivers also facilitate the introduction and spread of invasive alien species, although it is acknowledged that drivers differ across regions
    3.2.2
    well established
12. In the last 50 years, the number of people in the world has more than doubled, consumption has tripled, and global trade has grown nearly tenfold, with shifting patterns across regions
    3.1.1
    well established
13. This acceleration of the world economy is increasing the rate and magnitude of many direct and indirect drivers, particularly those related to trade, travel and land- and sea-use change, leading to further biological invasions
    3.1.1, 3.2.2
    well established

B9 -- bm_label

Intentionally or not, many human activities facilitate biological invasions globally (well established) {3.1.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4}.

1. Intentionally or not, many human activities facilitate biological invasions globally
   3.1.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4
   well established

The threats from invasive alien species are increasing markedly in all regions of Earth, with the current unparalleled high rate of introductions predicted to rise even higher in the future {B10} (figure SPM.4). (KM-B2)

B10 -- bm_description

Thirty-seven per cent of all known alien species have been reported since 1970 (figure SPM.3) (established but incomplete) {2.2.1}. The number of alien species has been rising continuously for centuries in all regions (well established) {2.2.1} and is expected to continue increasing in the future (well established) {2.6.1}. Global exploration and colonialism beginning in 1500, with the associated movement of people and goods, and industrialization from 1850 resulted in the transport and introduction of alien species and were historically important. Increases in global trade since 1950 have resulted in unprecedentedly high and increasing numbers of alien species being introduced (figure SPM.4). Some of these have become invasive (well established) {2.1, 3.2.3}. Even without the introduction of new species, given the opportunity, many already-established alien species in a region may continue to expand their geographic ranges and spread into new countries and regions (well established) {2.6.1}, including into remote environments such as mountain, polar (i.e., Antarctica and the Arctic) and desert ecosystems (well established) {2.5.2.8, 2.5.2.7, Box 2.7, box 3.11}. Under a “business-as-usual” scenario, which assumes the continuation of past trends in drivers, the total number of alien species is projected to further increase globally, and by 2050 is expected to be approximately 36 per cent higher than in 2005 (established but incomplete) {2.6.1}. As trends in major drivers are predicted to accelerate in the future (well established) {3.1.1}, the number of alien species worldwide is expected to increase faster than predicted under the “business-as-usual” scenario (established but incomplete) {2.6.1}. There is a lack of quantified projections for invasive alien species under different scenarios (table SPM.A1), which impedes a comparison of trends for alternative futures (well established) {2.6.5}. Projections of long-term trends for invasive alien species numbers are not available but they are expected to be similar to those for established alien species (established but incomplete) {2.2.1}. T he documented global economic cost of biological invasions has increased fourfold every 10 years since 1970 (figure SPM.3) and is anticipated to continue rising (established but incomplete) {box 4.13}.

1. Thirty-seven per cent of all known alien species have been reported since 1970 (figure SPM.3)
   2.2.1
   established but incomplete
2. The number of alien species has been rising continuously for centuries in all regions
   2.2.1
   well established
3. The number of alien species is expected to continue increasing in the future.
   2.6.1
   well established
4. Global exploration and colonialism beginning in 1500, with the associated movement of people and goods, and industrialization from 1850 resulted in the transport and introduction of alien species and were historically important. Increases in global trade since 1950 have resulted in unprecedentedly high and increasing numbers of alien species being introduced (figure SPM.4). Some of these have become invasive.
   2.1, 3.2.3
   well established
5. Even without the introduction of new species, given the opportunity, many already-established alien species in a region may continue to expand their geographic ranges and spread into new countries and regions
   2.6.1
   well established
6. Already-established alien species may continue to expand their geographic ranges and spread into new countries and regions, including into remote environments such as mountain, polar (i.e., Antarctica and the Arctic) and desert ecosystems.
   2.5.2.8, 2.5.2.7, Box 2.7, box 3.11
   well established
7. Under a "business-as-usual" scenario, which assumes the continuation of past trends in drivers, the total number of alien species is projected to further increase globally, and by 2050 is expected to be approximately 36 per cent higher than in 2005.
   2.6.1
   established but incomplete
8. As trends in major drivers are predicted to accelerate in the future, the number of alien species is expected to continue increasing.
   3.1.1
   well established
9. the number of alien species worldwide is expected to increase faster than predicted under the "business-as-usual" scenario
   2.6.1
   established but incomplete
10. There is a lack of quantified projections for invasive alien species under different scenarios (table SPM.A1), which impedes a comparison of trends for alternative futures
    2.6.5
    well established
11. Projections of long-term trends for invasive alien species numbers are not available but they are expected to be similar to those for established alien species
    2.2.1
    established but incomplete
12. The documented global economic cost of biological invasions has increased fourfold every 10 years since 1970 (figure SPM.3) and is anticipated to continue rising.
    box 4.13
    established but incomplete

B10 -- bm_label

The number of alien species is rising globally at unprecedented and increasing rates (figure SPM.4) (well established) {2.2.1}.

1. The number of alien species is rising globally at unprecedented and increasing rates (figure SPM.4)
   2.2.1
   well established

The ongoing amplification of drivers of change in nature may substantially increase the number of invasive alien species and their impacts in the future {B9, B11, B12, B14}. (KM-B3)

B11 -- bm_description

There has been a fivefold increase in the size of the global economy over the last 50 years (well established) {3.1.1}. International trade, which has increased nearly tenfold over the same period, represents the most important pathway through which invasive alien species are transported worldwide (figure SPM.5) (well established) {3.1.1, 3.2.3.1}. There is a strong link between the volume of commodity imports and the number of invasive alien species in a region, and patterns in the global spread of species mirror shipping and air traffic networks (well established) {3.2.3.1}. The construction of shipping canals (e.g., Suez, Panama) has connected previously separated marine and freshwater regions, facilitating the spread of invasive alien species through species migration, ballast water transfers (box SPM.2) and biofouling (well established) {3.2.3.1, 3.3.1.3}. For example, 150 years after the opening of the Suez Canal, marine alien species are still being newly recorded in the Mediterranean Sea (well established) {box 3.7}. Biosecurity measures at international borders have not kept pace with the growing volume, diversity and origins of global trade (including e-trade) and travel (well established) {3.2.4.2, 3.2.3.4, 5.6.2.2}. Projected growth in international trade and the movement of people, including tourism, will lead to further pressure on border inspection regimes and could soon overwhelm the biosecurity capability of most countries (well established) {3.2.3.1, 6.3.1.4}. Box SPM.2. The International Convention for the Control and Management of Ships’ Ballast Water and Sediments: an example of international collaboration to prevent biological invasions Many invasive alien species have been introduced to coastal and inland water ecosystems globally through ballast water discharges {3.2.3.1}. For example, @T its introduction via ballast water discharge, Dreissena polymorpha (zebra mussel) has become widespread in the Great Lakes of North America {box 2.9}. Dreissena polymorpha has been implicated in the transfer of botulinum toxin to higher trophic levels, which has been further facilitated by climate change, specifically by increased water temperatures, leading to mortality of waterfowl in the Great Lakes {box 4.5}. Furthermore, the shells of Dreissena polymorpha can cause skin injuries to recreational swimmers and commercial fishers {box 4.15}. The International Maritime Organization has developed an international instrument to address the transfer of harmful aquatic organisms and pathogens in ballast water of maritime vessels {5.5.1}. The International Convention for the Control and Management of Ships’ Ballast Water and Sediments was adopted by the International Maritime Organization in 2004 and came into force in 2017 {5.5.1}. It is the first international legally binding legislation requiring ships to manage their ballast water so that aquatic organisms and pathogens are eliminated before the ballast water is released in a new location {3.2.3.1, 5.5.1, 6.1.3, 6.31}. While the global efficacy of ballast water management cannot be assessed yet, there is evidence that it has reduced invasive alien species introductions in the Great Lakes of North America {5.5.1}: between 1959 and 2006, one new alien species was discovered every seven months, but there was an abrupt shift (85 per cent decline) in the number of newly established alien species following the implementation of the ballast water regulations by Canada and the United States of America in 2006 and 2008 respectively {box 2.9}. Dreissena polymorpha (zebra mussel) was introduced through ballast water discharge in the Great Lakes of North America, causing a negative impact on nature, nature’s contributions to people, and good quality of life.

1. There has been a fivefold increase in the size of the global economy over the last 50 years.
   3.1.1
   well established
2. International trade, which has increased nearly tenfold over the same period, represents the most important pathway through which invasive alien species are transported worldwide (figure SPM.5)
   3.1.1, 3.2.3.1
   well established
3. There is a strong link between the volume of commodity imports and the number of invasive alien species in a region, and patterns in the global spread of species mirror shipping and air traffic networks
   3.2.3.1
   well established
4. The construction of shipping canals (e.g., Suez, Panama) has connected previously separated marine and freshwater regions, facilitating the spread of invasive alien species through species migration, ballast water transfers (box SPM.2) and biofouling
   3.2.3.1, 3.3.1.3
   well established
5. For example, 150 years after the opening of the Suez Canal, marine alien species are still being newly recorded in the Mediterranean Sea
   box 3.7
   well established
6. Biosecurity measures at international borders have not kept pace with the growing volume, diversity and origins of global trade (including e-trade) and travel.
   3.2.4.2, 3.2.3.4, 5.6.2.2
   well established
7. Projected growth in international trade and the movement of people, including tourism, will lead to further pressure on border inspection regimes and could soon overwhelm the biosecurity capability of most countries
   3.2.3.1, 6.3.1.4
   well established
8. Box SPM.2. The International Convention for the Control and Management of Ships’ Ballast Water and Sediments: an example of international collaboration to prevent biological invasions Many invasive alien species have been introduced to coastal and inland water ecosystems globally through ballast water discharges
   3.2.3.1
   n/a
9. For example, many invasive alien species have been introduced via ballast water discharge, and Dreissena polymorpha (zebra mussel) has become widespread in the Great Lakes of North America.
   box 2.9
   n/a
10. Dreissena polymorpha has been implicated in the transfer of botulinum toxin to higher trophic levels, which has been further facilitated by climate change, specifically by increased water temperatures, leading to mortality of waterfowl in the Great Lakes
    box 4.5
    n/a
11. Furthermore, the shells of Dreissena polymorpha can cause skin injuries to recreational swimmers and commercial fishers
    box 4.15
    n/a
12. The International Maritime Organization has developed an international instrument to address the transfer of harmful aquatic organisms and pathogens in ballast water of maritime vessels
    5.5.1
    n/a
13. The International Convention for the Control and Management of Ships’ Ballast Water and Sediments was adopted by the International Maritime Organization in 2004 and came into force in 2017
    5.5.1
    n/a
14. It is the first international legally binding legislation requiring ships to manage their ballast water so that aquatic organisms and pathogens are eliminated before the ballast water is released in a new location
    3.2.3.1, 5.5.1, 6.1.3, 6.31
    n/a
15. While the global efficacy of ballast water management cannot be assessed yet, there is evidence that it has reduced invasive alien species introductions in the Great Lakes of North America
    5.5.1
    n/a
16. Between 1959 and 2006, one new alien species was discovered every seven months, but there was an abrupt shift (85 per cent decline) in the number of newly established alien species following the implementation of the ballast water regulations by Canada and the United States of America in 2006 and 2008 respectively.
    box 2.9
    n/a
17. Dreissena polymorpha (zebra mussel) was introduced through ballast water discharge in the Great Lakes of North America, causing a negative impact on nature, nature’s contributions to people, and good quality of life.
    n/a
    n/a

B11 -- bm_label

The increase in the transport and introduction of invasive alien species worldwide is primarily influenced by economic drivers, especially the expansion of global trade and human travel (figure SPM.5) (well established) {2.1.2, 3.1.1, 3.2.3}.

1. The increase in the transport and introduction of invasive alien species worldwide is primarily influenced by economic drivers, especially the expansion of global trade and human travel (figure SPM.5)
   2.1.2, 3.1.1, 3.2.3
   well established

B12 -- bm_description

Land- and sea-use changes may increase the vulnerability of natural ecosystems to the establishment and spread of invasive alien species through increasing fragmentation and habitat disturbance, for example by changing grazing, fire regimes, soil disturbance, or watershed flow (well established) {3.3.1.2, 3.3.1.5}. Transportation and utility infrastructures such as roads, tracks, railways, pipelines, canals and bridges, among others, can create corridors that facilitate the spread of invasive alien species, including into remote, undisturbed and protected areas (well established) {3.3.1.3, box 2.7, box 3.7}. Marine and aquatic infrastructure may alter seascapes and the functioning of marine ecosystems, facilitating the spread of invasive alien species (established but incomplete) {3.2.2.4, 3.3.1.4, 5.6.1.4}. The numbers of invasive alien species were reported to be 1.5 to 2.5 times higher on pontoons and pilings than on natural rocky reefs (established but incomplete) {3.3.1.4}. More generally, land-use change can facilitate biological invasions through alteration of processes that cause natural disturbance of landscapes, such as wildfire or grazing regimes (established but incomplete) {3.3.1.5}. In several regions of the world, grazing by feral alien ungulates (horses, camels, buffalo, pigs) facilitates the spread of invasive alien plants, sometimes through complex species interactions involving the suppression of native species and the facilitation of other alien species (well established) {3.3.1.5.1}. As a specific example, invasive alien ungulates (wild boar, deer) can transport invasive ectomycorrhizal (root associated symbiotic) fungi, which are beneficial for the establishment and spread of alien pine trees, over long distances, rendering habitats susceptible to pine invasion (well established) {box 3.10}. Climate change, along with the continued intensification and expansion of land-use change may lead to future increases in the establishment and spread of invasive alien species in disturbed habitats and in nearby natural habitats (established but incomplete) {3.3.4}.

1. Land- and sea-use changes may increase the vulnerability of natural ecosystems to the establishment and spread of invasive alien species through increasing fragmentation and habitat disturbance, for example by changing grazing, fire regimes, soil disturbance, or watershed flow.
   3.3.1.2, 3.3.1.5
   well established
2. Transportation and utility infrastructures such as roads, tracks, railways, pipelines, canals and bridges, among others, can create corridors that facilitate the spread of invasive alien species, including into remote, undisturbed and protected areas
   3.3.1.3, box 2.7, box 3.7
   well established
3. Marine and aquatic infrastructure may alter seascapes and the functioning of marine ecosystems, facilitating the spread of invasive alien species
   3.2.2.4, 3.3.1.4, 5.6.1.4
   established but incomplete
4. The numbers of invasive alien species were reported to be 1.5 to 2.5 times higher on pontoons and pilings than on natural rocky reefs
   3.3.1.4
   established but incomplete
5. More generally, land-use change can facilitate biological invasions through alteration of processes that cause natural disturbance of landscapes, such as wildfire or grazing regimes
   3.3.1.5
   established but incomplete
6. In several regions of the world, grazing by feral alien ungulates (horses, camels, buffalo, pigs) facilitates the spread of invasive alien plants, sometimes through complex species interactions involving the suppression of native species and the facilitation of other alien species
   3.3.1.5.1
   well established
7. As a specific example, invasive alien ungulates (wild boar, deer) can transport invasive ectomycorrhizal (root associated symbiotic) fungi, which are beneficial for the establishment and spread of alien pine trees, over long distances, rendering habitats susceptible to pine invasion
   box 3.10
   well established
8. Climate change, along with the continued intensification and expansion of land-use change may lead to future increases in the establishment and spread of invasive alien species in disturbed habitats and in nearby natural habitats
   3.3.4
   established but incomplete

B12 -- bm_label

Accelerated establishment and spread of invasive alien species within countries are primarily driven by direct drivers, notably changes in land- and sea-use (figure SPM.5) (well established) {2.2.1, 3.3.1, 3.6.2}.

1. Accelerated establishment and spread of invasive alien species within countries are primarily driven by direct drivers, notably changes in land- and sea-use (figure SPM.5)
   2.2.1, 3.3.1, 3.6.2
   well established

B14 -- bm_description

There are often time lags in detection and reporting of newly introduced invasive alien species (well established) {2.2.1}. Some invasive alien species spread very rapidly, while others take longer to spread and fully occupy their potential ranges (well established) {2.2.1, 2.2.3}. For some invasive alien species, the impact is immediate and continues into the long-term (e.g., fast-spreading pathogens such as Zika virus and Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (chytrid fungus), and fast-spreading predators such as lionfish), while for others there may be a considerable time lag, spanning decades in some cases, before the impact is apparent (e.g., many invasive alien trees) (well established) {1.5}. Such time lags can lead to people not perceiving the ongoing slow changes in their environment, including the impacts of invasive alien species (well established) {1.5.2}. There can also be significant time lags in the response of invasive alien species to various drivers because the underlying processes that facilitate biological invasions operate at varying temporal scales (short- to long-term) (well established) {1.5, 3.2.3.1, 3.6.3}. Invasive alien species may increase in numbers after a long period at low density as a result of changes in interactions with other species, for example as a result of the introduction of a missing dispersal agent or the removal of a competitor (3.3.5.1). For example, in the western United States, the invasive alien Carcinus maenas (European shore crab) reduced the abundance of a native clam, releasing another alien species, Gemma gemma (the amethyst gem clam), from competition, allowing it to become superabundant and to spread, after having been locally distributed and at low abundance for over 50 years (well established) {3.3.5.1}. Patterns in the numbers of alien species seen today reflect the drivers of decades ago (i.e., invasion debt) (established but incomplete) {3.1.1, 3.1.5}. Consequently, past and ongoing amplification of drivers may lead to a long legacy of future invasive alien species as, for example, the number of new alien species that become invasive increases over time (i.e., invasion debt) (established but incomplete) {2.3.1.5, 3.1.5, 3.6.3}. C. Invasive alien species and their negative impacts can be prevented and mitigated through effective management

1. There are often time lags in detection and reporting of newly introduced invasive alien species.
   2.2.1
   well established
2. Some invasive alien species spread very rapidly, while others take longer to spread and fully occupy their potential ranges
   2.2.1, 2.2.3
   well established
3. For some invasive alien species, the impact is immediate and continues into the long-term (e.g., fast-spreading pathogens such as Zika virus and Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (chytrid fungus), and fast-spreading predators such as lionfish), while for others there may be a considerable time lag, spanning decades in some cases, before the impact is apparent (e.g., many invasive alien trees).
   1.5
   well established
4. Such time lags can lead to people not perceiving the ongoing slow changes in their environment, including the impacts of invasive alien species
   1.5.2
   well established
5. There can also be significant time lags in the response of invasive alien species to various drivers because the underlying processes that facilitate biological invasions operate at varying temporal scales (short- to long-term).
   1.5, 3.2.3.1, 3.6.3
   well established
6. Invasive alien species may increase in numbers after a long period at low density as a result of changes in interactions with other species, for example as a result of the introduction of a missing dispersal agent or the removal of a competitor (3.3.5.1). For example, in the western United States, the invasive alien Carcinus maenas (European shore crab) reduced the abundance of a native clam, releasing another alien species, Gemma gemma (the amethyst gem clam), from competition, allowing it to become superabundant and to spread, after having been locally distributed and at low abundance for over 50 years
   3.3.5.1
   well established
7. Patterns in the numbers of alien species seen today reflect the drivers of decades ago (i.e., invasion debt)
   3.1.1, 3.1.5
   established but incomplete
8. Consequently, past and ongoing amplification of drivers may lead to a long legacy of future invasive alien species as, for example, the number of new alien species that become invasive increases over time (i.e., invasion debt)
   2.3.1.5, 3.1.5, 3.6.3
   established but incomplete
9. Invasive alien species and their negative impacts can be prevented and mitigated through effective management.
   n/a
   n/a

B14 -- bm_label

Negative impacts of invasive alien species can occur long after first introduction, and currently observed threats from invasive alien species can lead to an underestimation of the magnitude of the future impact (well established) {1.4.4, 2.2.1}.

1. Negative impacts of invasive alien species can occur long after first introduction, and currently observed threats from invasive alien species can lead to an underestimation of the magnitude of the future impact
   1.4.4, 2.2.1
   n/a

B9 -- bm_description

The transport and introduction of an invasive alien species can be intentional or unintentional, or in some cases both (well established) {3.2, 3.3}. Historically, many invasive alien species have been intentionally introduced outside their natural range around the world for their perceived benefits to people, without consideration or knowledge of their negative impacts (well established) {3.2.1, 3.2.3, 3.3.1, 3.3.2}. For example, invasive alien species are often used in forestry, agriculture, horticulture, aquaculture and as pets (well established) {3.2.3.2, 3.3.1.1}. In the Mediterranean basin alone, more than 35 per cent of alien freshwater fish have arisen from aquaculture (well established) {3.3.1.1.1}. Invasive alien species have also been intentionally introduced for recreation and amenity (well established) {3.2.1, 3.2.3.3} and for soil stabilization (well established) {3.3.1.1.2, 3.3.1.6, 3.3.4.6}. Many invasive alien species have also been introduced unintentionally, including as contaminants of soils and traded goods, stowaways in shipments (well established) {3.2.3.1, 3.2.3.2, 3.2.3.4}, stowaways in ballast water and sediments, and as biofouling organisms that attach themselves to ships’ hulls and other surfaces on vessels (well established) {3.2.3.1, 3.2.5, 3.3.2.3, box 3.7}. Additionally, online trade in animals, plants and other organisms is contributing to the introduction of invasive alien species worldwide (well established) {2.1.2, 3.2.4.2}. Progressive degradation of nature, including from pollution and fragmentation of ecosystems, has facilitated the establishment and spread of invasive alien species (well established) {3.3.1.2, 3.3.1.3, 3.3.1.5, 3.3.1.6, 3.3.3}. Demographic drivers also facilitate the introduction and spread of invasive alien species, although it is acknowledged that drivers differ across regions (well established) {3.2.2}. In the last 50 years, the number of people in the world has more than doubled, consumption has tripled, and global trade has grown nearly tenfold, with shifting patterns across regions (well established) {3.1.1}. This acceleration of the world economy is increasing the rate and magnitude of many direct and indirect drivers, particularly those related to trade, travel and land- and sea-use change, leading to further biological invasions (well established) {3.1.1, 3.2.2}.

1. The transport and introduction of an invasive alien species can be intentional or unintentional, or in some cases both.
   3.2, 3.3
   well established
2. Historically, many invasive alien species have been intentionally introduced outside their natural range around the world for their perceived benefits to people, without consideration or knowledge of their negative impacts.
   3.2.1, 3.2.3, 3.3.1, 3.3.2
   well established
3. For example, invasive alien species are often used in forestry, agriculture, horticulture, aquaculture and as pets
   3.2.3.2, 3.3.1.1
   well established
4. In the Mediterranean basin alone, more than 35 per cent of alien freshwater fish have arisen from aquaculture
   3.3.1.1.1
   well established
5. Invasive alien species have also been intentionally introduced for recreation and amenity
   3.2.1, 3.2.3.3
   well established
6. Invasive alien species have been intentionally introduced for soil stabilization.
   3.3.1.1.2, 3.3.1.6, 3.3.4.6
   well established
7. Many invasive alien species have also been introduced unintentionally, including as contaminants of soils and traded goods, stowaways in shipments
   3.2.3.1, 3.2.3.2, 3.2.3.4
   well established
8. Many invasive alien species have been introduced unintentionally as stowaways in ballast water and sediments, and as biofouling organisms that attach themselves to ships’ hulls and other surfaces on vessels.
   3.2.3.1, 3.2.5, 3.3.2.3, box 3.7
   well established
9. Additionally, online trade in animals, plants and other organisms is contributing to the introduction of invasive alien species worldwide
   2.1.2, 3.2.4.2
   well established
10. Progressive degradation of nature, including from pollution and fragmentation of ecosystems, has facilitated the establishment and spread of invasive alien species
    3.3.1.2, 3.3.1.3, 3.3.1.5, 3.3.1.6, 3.3.3
    well established
11. Demographic drivers also facilitate the introduction and spread of invasive alien species, although it is acknowledged that drivers differ across regions
    3.2.2
    well established
12. In the last 50 years, the number of people in the world has more than doubled, consumption has tripled, and global trade has grown nearly tenfold, with shifting patterns across regions
    3.1.1
    well established
13. This acceleration of the world economy is increasing the rate and magnitude of many direct and indirect drivers, particularly those related to trade, travel and land- and sea-use change, leading to further biological invasions
    3.1.1, 3.2.2
    well established

B9 -- bm_label

Intentionally or not, many human activities facilitate biological invasions globally (well established) {3.1.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4}.

1. Intentionally or not, many human activities facilitate biological invasions globally
   3.1.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4
   well established

The magnitude of the future threat from invasive alien species is difficult to predict because of complex interactions and feedback among direct and indirect drivers of change in nature {B10, B13, B14}. (KM-B4)

B10 -- bm_description

Thirty-seven per cent of all known alien species have been reported since 1970 (figure SPM.3) (established but incomplete) {2.2.1}. The number of alien species has been rising continuously for centuries in all regions (well established) {2.2.1} and is expected to continue increasing in the future (well established) {2.6.1}. Global exploration and colonialism beginning in 1500, with the associated movement of people and goods, and industrialization from 1850 resulted in the transport and introduction of alien species and were historically important. Increases in global trade since 1950 have resulted in unprecedentedly high and increasing numbers of alien species being introduced (figure SPM.4). Some of these have become invasive (well established) {2.1, 3.2.3}. Even without the introduction of new species, given the opportunity, many already-established alien species in a region may continue to expand their geographic ranges and spread into new countries and regions (well established) {2.6.1}, including into remote environments such as mountain, polar (i.e., Antarctica and the Arctic) and desert ecosystems (well established) {2.5.2.8, 2.5.2.7, Box 2.7, box 3.11}. Under a “business-as-usual” scenario, which assumes the continuation of past trends in drivers, the total number of alien species is projected to further increase globally, and by 2050 is expected to be approximately 36 per cent higher than in 2005 (established but incomplete) {2.6.1}. As trends in major drivers are predicted to accelerate in the future (well established) {3.1.1}, the number of alien species worldwide is expected to increase faster than predicted under the “business-as-usual” scenario (established but incomplete) {2.6.1}. There is a lack of quantified projections for invasive alien species under different scenarios (table SPM.A1), which impedes a comparison of trends for alternative futures (well established) {2.6.5}. Projections of long-term trends for invasive alien species numbers are not available but they are expected to be similar to those for established alien species (established but incomplete) {2.2.1}. T he documented global economic cost of biological invasions has increased fourfold every 10 years since 1970 (figure SPM.3) and is anticipated to continue rising (established but incomplete) {box 4.13}.

1. Thirty-seven per cent of all known alien species have been reported since 1970 (figure SPM.3)
   2.2.1
   established but incomplete
2. The number of alien species has been rising continuously for centuries in all regions
   2.2.1
   well established
3. The number of alien species is expected to continue increasing in the future.
   2.6.1
   well established
4. Global exploration and colonialism beginning in 1500, with the associated movement of people and goods, and industrialization from 1850 resulted in the transport and introduction of alien species and were historically important. Increases in global trade since 1950 have resulted in unprecedentedly high and increasing numbers of alien species being introduced (figure SPM.4). Some of these have become invasive.
   2.1, 3.2.3
   well established
5. Even without the introduction of new species, given the opportunity, many already-established alien species in a region may continue to expand their geographic ranges and spread into new countries and regions
   2.6.1
   well established
6. Already-established alien species may continue to expand their geographic ranges and spread into new countries and regions, including into remote environments such as mountain, polar (i.e., Antarctica and the Arctic) and desert ecosystems.
   2.5.2.8, 2.5.2.7, Box 2.7, box 3.11
   well established
7. Under a "business-as-usual" scenario, which assumes the continuation of past trends in drivers, the total number of alien species is projected to further increase globally, and by 2050 is expected to be approximately 36 per cent higher than in 2005.
   2.6.1
   established but incomplete
8. As trends in major drivers are predicted to accelerate in the future, the number of alien species is expected to continue increasing.
   3.1.1
   well established
9. the number of alien species worldwide is expected to increase faster than predicted under the "business-as-usual" scenario
   2.6.1
   established but incomplete
10. There is a lack of quantified projections for invasive alien species under different scenarios (table SPM.A1), which impedes a comparison of trends for alternative futures
    2.6.5
    well established
11. Projections of long-term trends for invasive alien species numbers are not available but they are expected to be similar to those for established alien species
    2.2.1
    established but incomplete
12. The documented global economic cost of biological invasions has increased fourfold every 10 years since 1970 (figure SPM.3) and is anticipated to continue rising.
    box 4.13
    established but incomplete

B10 -- bm_label

The number of alien species is rising globally at unprecedented and increasing rates (figure SPM.4) (well established) {2.2.1}.

1. The number of alien species is rising globally at unprecedented and increasing rates (figure SPM.4)
   2.2.1
   well established

B13 -- bm_description

The outcomes of interactions among multiple drivers, including feedback, are complex and varied (well established) {1.3.3, 3.1.5, 3.5}. Some of the highest current rates and greatest magnitudes of biological invasion occur where land-use change interacts with one or more additional drivers (established but incomplete) {3.5.1, 3.5.2, 3.5.3}. For example, interactions among land-use change, climate change and nutrient pollution have driven the introduction, establishment and spread of Pontederia crassipes (water hyacinth) across Africa (well established) {box 3.12}. Extraction of natural resources is closely linked with major economic and demographic drivers and can lead to a range of wider ecosystem impacts, including habitat degradation and loss, which facilitates invasive alien species (well established) {3.3.2, 3.4.2}. Climate change is predicted to lead to major changes in land- and sea-use and, in some regions, in human migration patterns (established but incomplete) {3.3.4}, but also to more extreme events among natural drivers, such as droughts, floods, wildfires, tropical storms and oceanic storm waves (established but incomplete) {3.3.4.3}. Additionally, invasive alien plants, especially trees and grasses, can sometimes be highly flammable and therefore promote more intense and frequent fire regimes, causing increased risks to nature and people and increased carbon release into the atmosphere (well established) {box 1.4}. Climate change is also predicted to enhance the competitive ability of some invasive alien species and to extend areas suitable for them, thus offering new opportunities for introductions and establishment (established but incomplete) {3.3.4}. Invasive alien species can facilitate the establishment and spread of other invasive alien species, resulting in positive feedback that increases impacts through a process known as “invasional meltdown” (well established) {3.3.5.1}. Biodiversity loss can reduce the resilience of ecosystems to invasive alien species, with subsequent feedback facilitating the establishment and spread of other invasive alien species (well established) {3.4.2}. Indirect drivers also interact with one another. For example, sociocultural changes may lead to increased rates of infrastructure development through urbanisation, and these interactions may further influence the rate and magnitude of change in land- and sea-use and other direct drivers that may in turn facilitate biological invasions (well established) {3.2.1}. Feedback and non-linear relationships among interacting drivers are likely to be exacerbated with ongoing and concurrent amplification of drivers (established but incomplete) {3.1.1, 3.5, 3.6.3, box 4.5}, potentially leading to numbers of invasive alien species never previously encountered (established but incomplete) {2.6.1}.

1. The outcomes of interactions among multiple drivers, including feedback, are complex and varied
   1.3.3, 3.1.5, 3.5
   well established
2. Some of the highest current rates and greatest magnitudes of biological invasion occur where land-use change interacts with one or more additional drivers
   3.5.1, 3.5.2, 3.5.3
   established but incomplete
3. For example, interactions among land-use change, climate change and nutrient pollution have driven the introduction, establishment and spread of Pontederia crassipes (water hyacinth) across Africa
   box 3.12
   well established
4. Extraction of natural resources is closely linked with major economic and demographic drivers and can lead to a range of wider ecosystem impacts, including habitat degradation and loss, which facilitates invasive alien species
   3.3.2, 3.4.2
   well established
5. Climate change is predicted to lead to major changes in land- and sea-use and, in some regions, in human migration patterns
   3.3.4
   established but incomplete
6. Climate change is predicted to lead to major changes in land- and sea-use and, in some regions, in human migration patterns, but also to more extreme events among natural drivers, such as droughts, floods, wildfires, tropical storms and oceanic storm waves.
   3.3.4.3
   established but incomplete
7. Additionally, invasive alien plants, especially trees and grasses, can sometimes be highly flammable and therefore promote more intense and frequent fire regimes, causing increased risks to nature and people and increased carbon release into the atmosphere
   box 1.4
   well established
8. Climate change is also predicted to enhance the competitive ability of some invasive alien species and to extend areas suitable for them, thus offering new opportunities for introductions and establishment
   3.3.4
   established but incomplete
9. Invasive alien species can facilitate the establishment and spread of other invasive alien species, resulting in positive feedback that increases impacts through a process known as "invasional meltdown"
   3.3.5.1
   well established
10. Biodiversity loss can reduce the resilience of ecosystems to invasive alien species, with subsequent feedback facilitating the establishment and spread of other invasive alien species
    3.4.2
    well established
11. Indirect drivers also interact with one another. For example, sociocultural changes may lead to increased rates of infrastructure development through urbanisation, and these interactions may further influence the rate and magnitude of change in land- and sea-use and other direct drivers that may in turn facilitate biological invasions
    3.2.1
    well established
12. Feedback and non-linear relationships among interacting drivers are likely to be exacerbated with ongoing and concurrent amplification of drivers
    3.1.1, 3.5, 3.6.3, box 4.5
    established but incomplete
13. Feedback and non-linear relationships among interacting drivers are likely to be exacerbated with ongoing and concurrent amplification of drivers, potentially leading to numbers of invasive alien species never previously encountered.
    2.6.1
    established but incomplete

B13 -- bm_label

No driver acts in isolation, and interactions among drivers are amplifying biological invasions, leading to outcomes that can be difficult to predict (well established) {2.6.1, 3.1.5, 3.5}.

1. No driver acts in isolation, and interactions among drivers are amplifying biological invasions, leading to outcomes that can be difficult to predict
   2.6.1, 3.1.5, 3.5
   well established

B14 -- bm_description

There are often time lags in detection and reporting of newly introduced invasive alien species (well established) {2.2.1}. Some invasive alien species spread very rapidly, while others take longer to spread and fully occupy their potential ranges (well established) {2.2.1, 2.2.3}. For some invasive alien species, the impact is immediate and continues into the long-term (e.g., fast-spreading pathogens such as Zika virus and Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (chytrid fungus), and fast-spreading predators such as lionfish), while for others there may be a considerable time lag, spanning decades in some cases, before the impact is apparent (e.g., many invasive alien trees) (well established) {1.5}. Such time lags can lead to people not perceiving the ongoing slow changes in their environment, including the impacts of invasive alien species (well established) {1.5.2}. There can also be significant time lags in the response of invasive alien species to various drivers because the underlying processes that facilitate biological invasions operate at varying temporal scales (short- to long-term) (well established) {1.5, 3.2.3.1, 3.6.3}. Invasive alien species may increase in numbers after a long period at low density as a result of changes in interactions with other species, for example as a result of the introduction of a missing dispersal agent or the removal of a competitor (3.3.5.1). For example, in the western United States, the invasive alien Carcinus maenas (European shore crab) reduced the abundance of a native clam, releasing another alien species, Gemma gemma (the amethyst gem clam), from competition, allowing it to become superabundant and to spread, after having been locally distributed and at low abundance for over 50 years (well established) {3.3.5.1}. Patterns in the numbers of alien species seen today reflect the drivers of decades ago (i.e., invasion debt) (established but incomplete) {3.1.1, 3.1.5}. Consequently, past and ongoing amplification of drivers may lead to a long legacy of future invasive alien species as, for example, the number of new alien species that become invasive increases over time (i.e., invasion debt) (established but incomplete) {2.3.1.5, 3.1.5, 3.6.3}. C. Invasive alien species and their negative impacts can be prevented and mitigated through effective management

1. There are often time lags in detection and reporting of newly introduced invasive alien species.
   2.2.1
   well established
2. Some invasive alien species spread very rapidly, while others take longer to spread and fully occupy their potential ranges
   2.2.1, 2.2.3
   well established
3. For some invasive alien species, the impact is immediate and continues into the long-term (e.g., fast-spreading pathogens such as Zika virus and Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (chytrid fungus), and fast-spreading predators such as lionfish), while for others there may be a considerable time lag, spanning decades in some cases, before the impact is apparent (e.g., many invasive alien trees).
   1.5
   well established
4. Such time lags can lead to people not perceiving the ongoing slow changes in their environment, including the impacts of invasive alien species
   1.5.2
   well established
5. There can also be significant time lags in the response of invasive alien species to various drivers because the underlying processes that facilitate biological invasions operate at varying temporal scales (short- to long-term).
   1.5, 3.2.3.1, 3.6.3
   well established
6. Invasive alien species may increase in numbers after a long period at low density as a result of changes in interactions with other species, for example as a result of the introduction of a missing dispersal agent or the removal of a competitor (3.3.5.1). For example, in the western United States, the invasive alien Carcinus maenas (European shore crab) reduced the abundance of a native clam, releasing another alien species, Gemma gemma (the amethyst gem clam), from competition, allowing it to become superabundant and to spread, after having been locally distributed and at low abundance for over 50 years
   3.3.5.1
   well established
7. Patterns in the numbers of alien species seen today reflect the drivers of decades ago (i.e., invasion debt)
   3.1.1, 3.1.5
   established but incomplete
8. Consequently, past and ongoing amplification of drivers may lead to a long legacy of future invasive alien species as, for example, the number of new alien species that become invasive increases over time (i.e., invasion debt)
   2.3.1.5, 3.1.5, 3.6.3
   established but incomplete
9. Invasive alien species and their negative impacts can be prevented and mitigated through effective management.
   n/a
   n/a

B14 -- bm_label

Negative impacts of invasive alien species can occur long after first introduction, and currently observed threats from invasive alien species can lead to an underestimation of the magnitude of the future impact (well established) {1.4.4, 2.2.1}.

1. Negative impacts of invasive alien species can occur long after first introduction, and currently observed threats from invasive alien species can lead to an underestimation of the magnitude of the future impact
   1.4.4, 2.2.1
   n/a

The number and impacts of invasive alien species can be reduced through management of biological invasions {C15, C16, C17, C18, C22, C23} (figure SPM.6, table SPM.1). (KM-C1)

C15 -- bm_description

There are three options for preventing or reducing the number and negative impacts of invasive alien species: Pathway management, based on the analysis of pre-border, border and post-border risks, can prevent the movement and spread of invasive alien species through surveillance and the implementation of biosecurity response measures (well established) {5.3.1.1, 5.5.1, 5.5.2}. Species-based management at a local or landscape level, which includes surveillance, early detection and rapid response, eradication, containment and widespread control (including biological control), and can be applied throughout the biological invasion process (well established) {5.3.1.2, 5.5.2, 5.5.3, 5.5.4, 5.5.5}. Site- or ecosystem-based management, which can both protect and restore native species and ecosystems (well established) {5.3.1.3, 5.5.6}. The use of individual species-based and site-based approaches for the management of multiple invasive alien species has been both successful and cost-effective for terrestrial and closed water systems, especially in biogeographically isolated areas such as small islands and lakes (well established) {5.3.1, 5.3.2, 5.5.4}. While some management approaches can be applied at multiple scales across terrestrial and closed water systems (well established) {5.1.1, 5.3.1.4.}, pathway management (e.g., ballast water and biofouling; box SPM.2) is by far the most effective option for managing biological invasions in marine and connected water systems, and can be achieved by enhanced international and regional cooperation (well established) {5.5.1, 6.3.2.2}.

1. There are three options for preventing or reducing the number and negative impacts of invasive alien species: Pathway management, based on the analysis of pre-border, border and post-border risks, can prevent the movement and spread of invasive alien species through surveillance and the implementation of biosecurity response measures.
   5.3.1.1, 5.5.1, 5.5.2
   well established
2. Species-based management at a local or landscape level, which includes surveillance, early detection and rapid response, eradication, containment and widespread control (including biological control), and can be applied throughout the biological invasion process.
   5.3.1.2, 5.5.2, 5.5.3, 5.5.4, 5.5.5
   well established
3. Site- or ecosystem-based management can both protect and restore native species and ecosystems.
   5.3.1.3, 5.5.6
   well established
4. The use of individual species-based and site-based approaches for the management of multiple invasive alien species has been both successful and cost-effective for terrestrial and closed water systems, especially in biogeographically isolated areas such as small islands and lakes
   5.3.1, 5.3.2, 5.5.4
   well established
5. While some management approaches can be applied at multiple scales across terrestrial and closed water systems
   5.1.1, 5.3.1.4.
   well established
6. Pathway management (e.g., ballast water and biofouling; box SPM.2) is by far the most effective option for managing biological invasions in marine and connected water systems, and can be achieved by enhanced international and regional cooperation.
   5.5.1, 6.3.2.2
   well established

C15 -- bm_label

Management of invasive alien species has been successful in many contexts (figure SPM.6) (table SPM.1) (well established) {5.5.1, 5.5.2, 5.5.3, 5.5.4, 5.5.5, 5.5.6}.

1. Management of invasive alien species has been successful in many contexts (figure SPM.6) (table SPM.1)
   5.5.1, 5.5.2, 5.5.3, 5.5.4, 5.5.5, 5.5.6
   well established

C16 -- bm_description

Frameworks and tools have been developed based on evidence from practice, science and other knowledge systems, including those of Indigenous Peoples and local communities. These can underpin impact assessment, monitoring and prioritization of intentional and unintentional introduction pathways, species and sites for the successful management of biological invasions (well established) {5.2.2}. Although many knowledge and data gaps exist (table SPM.A1), the tools enable management actions to proceed under a risk assessment and risk management framework in line with a precautionary approach, as appropriate, using inclusive decision-making that leads to the review of all the measures (well established) {5.2.2.1, 5.2.2.3, 5.2.2.4, 5.3.3, 6.4.1}. Decision-making may be challenged by multiple sources of uncertainty, such as projections in other drivers of change, which can be recognied, quantified and documented to contextualize decisions (well established) {5.6.2.5}. Many sources of accessible literature and information (including open-access data), analytical tools and other types of knowledge can be used to support decision-making for all countries, which could lead to coordinated management outcomes globally (table SPM.A3) (established but incomplete) {6.6.1.5}. Objectives and actions for managing biological invasions within terrestrial and closed water systems or marine and connected water systems and the level (high, medium, low) of their (a) current availability (availability of target-specific tools for implementing management); (b) ease of use (ease of implementation or specialist or technological expertise to implement); and (c) effectiveness (likely long-term efficacy and outcomes of implementation). Hashed boxes indicate responses with a low level of confidence and crossed boxes indicate there was no data available to perform an assessment. Actions are aligned with figure SPM.6 and encompass pathway management, species-, site- and ecosystem-based management targets. All management approaches may have non-target impacts, as indicated by superscript a.

1. Frameworks and tools have been developed based on evidence from practice, science and other knowledge systems, including those of Indigenous Peoples and local communities. These can underpin impact assessment, monitoring and prioritization of intentional and unintentional introduction pathways, species and sites for the successful management of biological invasions.
   5.2.2
   well established
2. Although many knowledge and data gaps exist (table SPM.A1), the tools enable management actions to proceed under a risk assessment and risk management framework in line with a precautionary approach, as appropriate, using inclusive decision-making that leads to the review of all the measures for the successful management of biological invasions.
   5.2.2.1, 5.2.2.3, 5.2.2.4, 5.3.3, 6.4.1
   well established
3. Decision-making may be challenged by multiple sources of uncertainty, such as projections in other drivers of change, which can be recognied, quantified and documented to contextualize decisions
   5.6.2.5
   well established
4. Many sources of accessible literature and information (including open-access data), analytical tools and other types of knowledge can be used to support decision-making for all countries, which could lead to coordinated management outcomes globally (table SPM.A3)
   6.6.1.5
   established but incomplete
5. Objectives and actions for managing biological invasions within terrestrial and closed water systems or marine and connected water systems and the level (high, medium, low) of their (a) current availability (availability of target-specific tools for implementing management); (b) ease of use (ease of implementation or specialist or technological expertise to implement); and (c) effectiveness (likely long-term efficacy and outcomes of implementation). Hashed boxes indicate responses with a low level of confidence and crossed boxes indicate there was no data available to perform an assessment. Actions are aligned with figure SPM.6 and encompass pathway management, species-, site- and ecosystem-based management targets. All management approaches may have non-target impacts, as indicated by superscript a.
   n/a
   n/a

C16 -- bm_label

There are effective decision-making frameworks and tools that can support management of biological invasions (table SPM.1) (well established) {5.2.1, 5.2.2}.

1. There are effective decision-making frameworks and tools that can support management of biological invasions (table SPM.1)
   5.2.1, 5.2.2
   well established

C17 -- bm_description

Prevention measures through pathway management, including strictly enforced pre-border quarantine, import controls and border biosecurity, have increased interception rates and slowed the rate of invasive alien species arriving and establishing globally (well established) {5.4.3.1, 5.5.1}. For example, in Australasia, the number of interceptions of Halyomorpha halys (brown marmorated stink bug), recognized as a major threat in the agricultural sector, have declined following implementation of a systems-based pathway management approach (well established) {5.5.1}. Measures to address escape from confinement are also necessary (established but incomplete) {5.3.1.1}. It is, however, difficult to prevent further natural dispersal of invasive alien species from a previously invaded range (well established) {5.5.1, box 1.6}. Prevention is important on islands and in ecosystems where eradication poses significant technical challenges (well established) {5.3.2}. Effective prevention measures depend on adequate and sustained funding, capacity-building, technical and scientific cooperation, transfer of technology, monitoring, and relevant and appropriate biosecurity legislation and enforcement, which is supported by strong infrastructure, quarantine and inspection facilities, including diagnostic support services (well established) {5.4.2, 5.6.2, 5.6.2.2, 5.7}. Risk assessment could be used by businesses to engage different sectors in the prevention and management of biological invasions (established but incomplete) {5.6.2.1}. Adoption of regulated species lists with explicit prohibition of or permission for the importing of specific alien species, underpinned by risk analysis, has been an effective prevention strategy (well established) {5.6.2.1, 6.3.1.4}. It is estimated that nearly 70 per cent of marine invasive alien species established worldwide were introduced via biofouling (established but incomplete) {5.5.1}.

1. Prevention measures through pathway management, including strictly enforced pre-border quarantine, import controls and border biosecurity, have increased interception rates and slowed the rate of invasive alien species arriving and establishing globally
   5.4.3.1, 5.5.1
   well established
2. For example, in Australasia, the number of interceptions of Halyomorpha halys (brown marmorated stink bug), recognized as a major threat in the agricultural sector, have declined following implementation of a systems-based pathway management approach
   5.5.1
   well established
3. Measures to address escape from confinement are also necessary
   5.3.1.1
   established but incomplete
4. It is, however, difficult to prevent further natural dispersal of invasive alien species from a previously invaded range
   5.5.1, box 1.6
   well established
5. Prevention is important on islands and in ecosystems where eradication poses significant technical challenges
   5.3.2
   well established
6. Effective prevention measures depend on adequate and sustained funding, capacity-building, technical and scientific cooperation, transfer of technology, monitoring, and relevant and appropriate biosecurity legislation and enforcement, which is supported by strong infrastructure, quarantine and inspection facilities, including diagnostic support services
   5.4.2, 5.6.2, 5.6.2.2, 5.7
   well established
7. Risk assessment could be used by businesses to engage different sectors in the prevention and management of biological invasions
   5.6.2.1
   established but incomplete
8. Adoption of regulated species lists with explicit prohibition of or permission for the importing of specific alien species, underpinned by risk analysis, has been an effective prevention strategy
   5.6.2.1, 6.3.1.4
   well established
9. It is estimated that nearly 70 per cent of marine invasive alien species established worldwide were introduced via biofouling
   5.5.1
   established but incomplete

C17 -- bm_label

Preventing the introduction of invasive alien species is the most cost-effective management option (figure SPM.6) (well established) {5.5.1}.

1. Preventing the introduction of invasive alien species is the most cost-effective management option (figure SPM.6)
   5.5.1
   well established

C18 -- bm_description

Horizon scanning and risk analysis are examples of the many decision-support tools used to identify and prioritize emerging invasive alien species to support preparedness (well established) {5.2}. Such tools can inform the development of rapid response plans in advance of an incursion to guide action effectively following the detection of priority invasive alien species (well established) {5.2.2.1.a, 5.2.2.1.b, 5.5.1}. Early detection of invasive alien species can enable rapid intervention to contain and eradicate invasive alien species before they spread (well established) {5.1.1, 5.3.1.1, 5.5.2}. General surveillance strategies (e.g., through citizen science, sentinel sites, and remote sensing) for detecting new invasive alien species can also underpin effective preparedness (established but incomplete) {5.3.1.1, 5.4.2.1.a, 5.4.2.2.a, 5.5.2, box 6.20}. For example, in Africa, Asia and Latin America, the PlantwisePlus programme assists smallholder farmers with the identification of pests and damaged crops, contributing to early detection of invasive alien species outbreaks (well established) {5.5.2}.

1. Horizon scanning and risk analysis are examples of the many decision-support tools used to identify and prioritize emerging invasive alien species to support preparedness.
   5.2
   well established
2. Such tools can inform the development of rapid response plans in advance of an incursion to guide action effectively following the detection of priority invasive alien species
   5.2.2.1.a, 5.2.2.1.b, 5.5.1
   well established
3. Early detection of invasive alien species can enable rapid intervention to contain and eradicate invasive alien species before they spread
   5.1.1, 5.3.1.1, 5.5.2
   well established
4. General surveillance strategies (e.g., through citizen science, sentinel sites, and remote sensing) for detecting new invasive alien species can also underpin effective preparedness
   5.3.1.1, 5.4.2.1.a, 5.4.2.2.a, 5.5.2, box 6.20
   established but incomplete
5. For example, in Africa, Asia and Latin America, the PlantwisePlus programme assists smallholder farmers with the identification of pests and damaged crops, contributing to early detection of invasive alien species outbreaks
   5.5.2
   well established

C18 -- bm_label

When prevention fails or is not possible, preparedness, early detection and rapid response are effective at reducing rates of invasive alien species establishment in terrestrial and closed water systems, and critical for marine and connected water systems (well established) {5.4.2, 5.5.1, 5.5.3, 5.5.2, 5.6.3.3}.

1. When prevention fails or is not possible, preparedness, early detection and rapid response are effective at reducing rates of invasive alien species establishment in terrestrial and closed water systems, and critical for marine and connected water systems
   5.4.2, 5.5.1, 5.5.3, 5.5.2, 5.6.3.3
   well established

C22 -- bm_description

The development of tools and technologies ranging from biotechnology to bioinformatics and data analytics is ongoing for managing pathways, surveillance and detection, rapid response and eradication, local containment and control of widespread invasive alien species (well established) {5.4.1, 5.4.2, 5.4.3}. eDNA-based approaches have been used for detection and identification of invasive alien, mostly aquatic, species such as Orconectes rusticus (rusty crayfish) (well established) {5.4.2.1}. New approaches can be integrated with existing management actions to support site- and ecosystem-based management and restoration (established but incomplete) {5.4}. Multi-stakeholder engagement, including risk communication and context-specific application of approaches through local communities, can improve public acceptability and adoption of new tools and technologies for managing biological invasions and the control of invasive alien species (well established) {5.2.1, 5.4.3, 5.6.2.1, 6.4.1}. Potential benefits and risks of novel technologies can be assessed using a risk assessment and risk management framework in line with a precautionary approach, as appropriate (well established) {5.4.3.2.f}. Using this framework in consultation with regulators, stakeholders and Indigenous Peoples and local communities can limit the potential for unintended consequences (well established) {5.4.3.2}. However, most countries do not have the regulatory frameworks and/or technical capabilities needed to guide and support development and implementation of new tools and technologies (established but incomplete) {5.4.3.2, 6.3.3.4}. Access to modern tools and technologies and the ability to utilize them can be limited, particularly in developing countries, meaning greater capacity-building is required and improved technical and scientific cooperation (well established) {5.6.2.4, 6.7.2.7}.

1. The development of tools and technologies ranging from biotechnology to bioinformatics and data analytics is ongoing for managing pathways, surveillance and detection, rapid response and eradication, local containment and control of widespread invasive alien species.
   5.4.1, 5.4.2, 5.4.3
   well established
2. eDNA-based approaches have been used for detection and identification of invasive alien, mostly aquatic, species such as Orconectes rusticus (rusty crayfish)
   5.4.2.1
   well established
3. New approaches can be integrated with existing management actions to support site- and ecosystem-based management and restoration
   5.4
   established but incomplete
4. Multi-stakeholder engagement, including risk communication and context-specific application of approaches through local communities, can improve public acceptability and adoption of new tools and technologies for managing biological invasions and the control of invasive alien species
   5.2.1, 5.4.3, 5.6.2.1, 6.4.1
   well established
5. Potential benefits and risks of novel technologies can be assessed using a risk assessment and risk management framework in line with a precautionary approach, as appropriate
   5.4.3.2.f
   well established
6. Potential benefits and risks of novel technologies can be assessed using this framework in consultation with regulators, stakeholders and Indigenous Peoples and local communities to limit the potential for unintended consequences.
   5.4.3.2
   n/a
7. However, most countries do not have the regulatory frameworks and/or technical capabilities needed to guide and support development and implementation of new tools and technologies
   5.4.3.2, 6.3.3.4
   n/a
8. Access to modern tools and technologies and the ability to utilize them can be limited, particularly in developing countries, meaning greater capacity-building is required and improved technical and scientific cooperation.
   5.6.2.4, 6.7.2.7
   well established

C22 -- bm_label

Tools and technologies increase efficiencies when managing biological invasions and controlling invasive alien species, with many new options emerging (established but incomplete) {5.4}.

1. Tools and technologies increase efficiencies when managing biological invasions and controlling invasive alien species, with many new options emerging
   5.4
   established but incomplete

C23 -- bm_description

Access to adequate and sustained financial and other resources, including international funding to support developing countries, underpins and improves the effectiveness of actions for long-term management of biological invasions, including eradication, control and ongoing monitoring, by, for example, providing access to modern tools and enhancing capacity to deploy them (well established) {5.3.1, 5.5.7, 5.6.2.1, 5.6.2.2, 5.6.2.4, 6.5, 6.5.7}. Engagement by all stakeholders, governments and the private sector helps to optimize management of biological invasions in terms of economic, environmental and social outcomes, particularly when resources are limited (well established) {5.2.1, 6.5.1}. Societal support is important for eradication and control of some invasive alien species, particularly vertebrates, for which there are ethical considerations {5.3.1.4, 5.4.3.2, 5.6.2.1}. A lack of stakeholder participation in adaptive management can lead to negative consequences for good quality of life, especially for Indigenous Peoples and local communities who have adapted by using invasive alien species, that include loss of livelihoods, marginalization and/or gender inequity (well established) {box 4.18, 5.2.1, 5.4.3.3.a, 5.5.3, 5.6.1.2, 6.4.1}. The involvement of all stakeholders can be achieved by using an adaptive co-management approach to the process, from decision-making to the implementation of management actions (well established) {5.4.3.3.a, 5.6.2.5}. Adaptive co-management includes capacity-building; co-creation, co-design, co-development and co-implementation; social learning; and broad partnerships (established but incomplete) {5.7, 6.4.2, 6.4.3.2, 6.4.4}. Collaboratively addressing the management of biological invasions around which there are conflicting values among different sectors, stakeholders and Indigenous Peoples and local communities is a significant global policy challenge (well established) {5.6.1.2}.

1. Access to adequate and sustained financial and other resources, including international funding to support developing countries, underpins and improves the effectiveness of actions for long-term management of biological invasions, including eradication, control and ongoing monitoring, by, for example, providing access to modern tools and enhancing capacity to deploy them
   5.3.1, 5.5.7, 5.6.2.1, 5.6.2.2, 5.6.2.4, 6.5, 6.5.7
   well established
2. Engagement by all stakeholders, governments and the private sector helps to optimize management of biological invasions in terms of economic, environmental and social outcomes, particularly when resources are limited
   5.2.1, 6.5.1
   well established
3. Societal support is important for eradication and control of some invasive alien species, particularly vertebrates, for which there are ethical considerations
   5.3.1.4, 5.4.3.2, 5.6.2.1
   n/a
4. A lack of stakeholder participation in adaptive management can lead to negative consequences for good quality of life, especially for Indigenous Peoples and local communities who have adapted by using invasive alien species, that include loss of livelihoods, marginalization and/or gender inequity
   box 4.18, 5.2.1, 5.4.3.3.a, 5.5.3, 5.6.1.2, 6.4.1
   n/a
5. The involvement of all stakeholders can be achieved by using an adaptive co-management approach to the process, from decision-making to the implementation of management actions
   5.4.3.3.a, 5.6.2.5
   well established
6. Adaptive co-management includes capacity-building; co-creation, co-design, co-development and co-implementation; social learning; and broad partnerships
   5.7, 6.4.2, 6.4.3.2, 6.4.4
   established but incomplete
7. Collaboratively addressing the management of biological invasions around which there are conflicting values among different sectors, stakeholders and Indigenous Peoples and local communities is a significant global policy challenge
   5.6.1.2
   well established

C23 -- bm_label

Stakeholder engagement, capacity-building and sustained resourcing are critical to the success of adaptive management (well established) {5.2.1, 5.6.2.1, 5.6.2.2, 5.6.2.4, 6.4.1, 6.5.3, 6.5.6, 6.5.7}.

1. Stakeholder engagement, capacity-building and sustained resourcing are critical to the success of adaptive management
   5.2.1, 5.6.2.1, 5.6.2.2, 5.6.2.4, 6.4.1, 6.5.3, 6.5.6, 6.5.7
   well established

Prevention and preparedness are the most cost-effective options and thus crucial for managing the threats from invasive alien species {C15, C17, C18}. (KM-C2)

C15 -- bm_description

There are three options for preventing or reducing the number and negative impacts of invasive alien species: Pathway management, based on the analysis of pre-border, border and post-border risks, can prevent the movement and spread of invasive alien species through surveillance and the implementation of biosecurity response measures (well established) {5.3.1.1, 5.5.1, 5.5.2}. Species-based management at a local or landscape level, which includes surveillance, early detection and rapid response, eradication, containment and widespread control (including biological control), and can be applied throughout the biological invasion process (well established) {5.3.1.2, 5.5.2, 5.5.3, 5.5.4, 5.5.5}. Site- or ecosystem-based management, which can both protect and restore native species and ecosystems (well established) {5.3.1.3, 5.5.6}. The use of individual species-based and site-based approaches for the management of multiple invasive alien species has been both successful and cost-effective for terrestrial and closed water systems, especially in biogeographically isolated areas such as small islands and lakes (well established) {5.3.1, 5.3.2, 5.5.4}. While some management approaches can be applied at multiple scales across terrestrial and closed water systems (well established) {5.1.1, 5.3.1.4.}, pathway management (e.g., ballast water and biofouling; box SPM.2) is by far the most effective option for managing biological invasions in marine and connected water systems, and can be achieved by enhanced international and regional cooperation (well established) {5.5.1, 6.3.2.2}.

1. There are three options for preventing or reducing the number and negative impacts of invasive alien species: Pathway management, based on the analysis of pre-border, border and post-border risks, can prevent the movement and spread of invasive alien species through surveillance and the implementation of biosecurity response measures.
   5.3.1.1, 5.5.1, 5.5.2
   well established
2. Species-based management at a local or landscape level, which includes surveillance, early detection and rapid response, eradication, containment and widespread control (including biological control), and can be applied throughout the biological invasion process.
   5.3.1.2, 5.5.2, 5.5.3, 5.5.4, 5.5.5
   well established
3. Site- or ecosystem-based management can both protect and restore native species and ecosystems.
   5.3.1.3, 5.5.6
   well established
4. The use of individual species-based and site-based approaches for the management of multiple invasive alien species has been both successful and cost-effective for terrestrial and closed water systems, especially in biogeographically isolated areas such as small islands and lakes
   5.3.1, 5.3.2, 5.5.4
   well established
5. While some management approaches can be applied at multiple scales across terrestrial and closed water systems
   5.1.1, 5.3.1.4.
   well established
6. Pathway management (e.g., ballast water and biofouling; box SPM.2) is by far the most effective option for managing biological invasions in marine and connected water systems, and can be achieved by enhanced international and regional cooperation.
   5.5.1, 6.3.2.2
   well established

C15 -- bm_label

Management of invasive alien species has been successful in many contexts (figure SPM.6) (table SPM.1) (well established) {5.5.1, 5.5.2, 5.5.3, 5.5.4, 5.5.5, 5.5.6}.

1. Management of invasive alien species has been successful in many contexts (figure SPM.6) (table SPM.1)
   5.5.1, 5.5.2, 5.5.3, 5.5.4, 5.5.5, 5.5.6
   well established

C17 -- bm_description

Prevention measures through pathway management, including strictly enforced pre-border quarantine, import controls and border biosecurity, have increased interception rates and slowed the rate of invasive alien species arriving and establishing globally (well established) {5.4.3.1, 5.5.1}. For example, in Australasia, the number of interceptions of Halyomorpha halys (brown marmorated stink bug), recognized as a major threat in the agricultural sector, have declined following implementation of a systems-based pathway management approach (well established) {5.5.1}. Measures to address escape from confinement are also necessary (established but incomplete) {5.3.1.1}. It is, however, difficult to prevent further natural dispersal of invasive alien species from a previously invaded range (well established) {5.5.1, box 1.6}. Prevention is important on islands and in ecosystems where eradication poses significant technical challenges (well established) {5.3.2}. Effective prevention measures depend on adequate and sustained funding, capacity-building, technical and scientific cooperation, transfer of technology, monitoring, and relevant and appropriate biosecurity legislation and enforcement, which is supported by strong infrastructure, quarantine and inspection facilities, including diagnostic support services (well established) {5.4.2, 5.6.2, 5.6.2.2, 5.7}. Risk assessment could be used by businesses to engage different sectors in the prevention and management of biological invasions (established but incomplete) {5.6.2.1}. Adoption of regulated species lists with explicit prohibition of or permission for the importing of specific alien species, underpinned by risk analysis, has been an effective prevention strategy (well established) {5.6.2.1, 6.3.1.4}. It is estimated that nearly 70 per cent of marine invasive alien species established worldwide were introduced via biofouling (established but incomplete) {5.5.1}.

1. Prevention measures through pathway management, including strictly enforced pre-border quarantine, import controls and border biosecurity, have increased interception rates and slowed the rate of invasive alien species arriving and establishing globally
   5.4.3.1, 5.5.1
   well established
2. For example, in Australasia, the number of interceptions of Halyomorpha halys (brown marmorated stink bug), recognized as a major threat in the agricultural sector, have declined following implementation of a systems-based pathway management approach
   5.5.1
   well established
3. Measures to address escape from confinement are also necessary
   5.3.1.1
   established but incomplete
4. It is, however, difficult to prevent further natural dispersal of invasive alien species from a previously invaded range
   5.5.1, box 1.6
   well established
5. Prevention is important on islands and in ecosystems where eradication poses significant technical challenges
   5.3.2
   well established
6. Effective prevention measures depend on adequate and sustained funding, capacity-building, technical and scientific cooperation, transfer of technology, monitoring, and relevant and appropriate biosecurity legislation and enforcement, which is supported by strong infrastructure, quarantine and inspection facilities, including diagnostic support services
   5.4.2, 5.6.2, 5.6.2.2, 5.7
   well established
7. Risk assessment could be used by businesses to engage different sectors in the prevention and management of biological invasions
   5.6.2.1
   established but incomplete
8. Adoption of regulated species lists with explicit prohibition of or permission for the importing of specific alien species, underpinned by risk analysis, has been an effective prevention strategy
   5.6.2.1, 6.3.1.4
   well established
9. It is estimated that nearly 70 per cent of marine invasive alien species established worldwide were introduced via biofouling
   5.5.1
   established but incomplete

C17 -- bm_label

Preventing the introduction of invasive alien species is the most cost-effective management option (figure SPM.6) (well established) {5.5.1}.

1. Preventing the introduction of invasive alien species is the most cost-effective management option (figure SPM.6)
   5.5.1
   well established

C18 -- bm_description

Horizon scanning and risk analysis are examples of the many decision-support tools used to identify and prioritize emerging invasive alien species to support preparedness (well established) {5.2}. Such tools can inform the development of rapid response plans in advance of an incursion to guide action effectively following the detection of priority invasive alien species (well established) {5.2.2.1.a, 5.2.2.1.b, 5.5.1}. Early detection of invasive alien species can enable rapid intervention to contain and eradicate invasive alien species before they spread (well established) {5.1.1, 5.3.1.1, 5.5.2}. General surveillance strategies (e.g., through citizen science, sentinel sites, and remote sensing) for detecting new invasive alien species can also underpin effective preparedness (established but incomplete) {5.3.1.1, 5.4.2.1.a, 5.4.2.2.a, 5.5.2, box 6.20}. For example, in Africa, Asia and Latin America, the PlantwisePlus programme assists smallholder farmers with the identification of pests and damaged crops, contributing to early detection of invasive alien species outbreaks (well established) {5.5.2}.

1. Horizon scanning and risk analysis are examples of the many decision-support tools used to identify and prioritize emerging invasive alien species to support preparedness.
   5.2
   well established
2. Such tools can inform the development of rapid response plans in advance of an incursion to guide action effectively following the detection of priority invasive alien species
   5.2.2.1.a, 5.2.2.1.b, 5.5.1
   well established
3. Early detection of invasive alien species can enable rapid intervention to contain and eradicate invasive alien species before they spread
   5.1.1, 5.3.1.1, 5.5.2
   well established
4. General surveillance strategies (e.g., through citizen science, sentinel sites, and remote sensing) for detecting new invasive alien species can also underpin effective preparedness
   5.3.1.1, 5.4.2.1.a, 5.4.2.2.a, 5.5.2, box 6.20
   established but incomplete
5. For example, in Africa, Asia and Latin America, the PlantwisePlus programme assists smallholder farmers with the identification of pests and damaged crops, contributing to early detection of invasive alien species outbreaks
   5.5.2
   well established

C18 -- bm_label

When prevention fails or is not possible, preparedness, early detection and rapid response are effective at reducing rates of invasive alien species establishment in terrestrial and closed water systems, and critical for marine and connected water systems (well established) {5.4.2, 5.5.1, 5.5.3, 5.5.2, 5.6.3.3}.

1. When prevention fails or is not possible, preparedness, early detection and rapid response are effective at reducing rates of invasive alien species establishment in terrestrial and closed water systems, and critical for marine and connected water systems
   5.4.2, 5.5.1, 5.5.3, 5.5.2, 5.6.3.3
   well established

Eradication has been successful, especially for small and slow-spreading populations of invasive alien species in isolated ecosystems {C19}. (KM-C3)

C19 -- bm_description

Over the last 100 years, there have been 1,550 documented examples of eradication on 998 islands, with success cited in 88 per cent of cases (well established) {5.5.3}. One of the many examples is French Polynesia, where Rattus rattus (black rat), Felis catus (cat), Oryctolagus cuniculus (rabbit) and Capra hircus (goat) have been successfully eradicated (well established) {box 5.8}. Eradication of invasive alien plants is particularly difficult because of the longevity of dormant seeds that can persist in soil (i.e., soil seed bank), although there are examples of successful eradication of invasive alien plant species with limited distributions (well established) {5.5.3}. Also, rapid response to incursions, detected early, of some invertebrates have been successful, for example, eradication of Solenopsis invicta (red imported fire ant) in New Zealand (well established) {box 5.14}. There are examples of largerscale eradications, such as Ondatra zibethicus (muskrat) and Myocastor coypus (coypu) from the United Kingdom (well established) {5.5.3}. However, large-scale eradications are difficult and unlikely to be feasible in many cases (well established) {5.5.3}. In addition to the extent of the area invaded, the success of eradication programmes depends on the support and engagement of relevant stakeholders and Indigenous Peoples and local communities (well established) {5.4.2.2.a, 5.5.3, 5.6.2.1, 5.6.2.2}. Eradication programmes are aided by a rapid flow of information on the extent and location of invasive alien species, which can be provided by people who live nearby (well established) {5.4.2.2.a, 5.5.3}. Evidence suggests that there have been no fully successful eradication programmes for established invasive alien species in marine ecosystems (well established) {5.5.3}. While eradication programmes can only be achieved with access to upfront cost, they are generally cheaper than long-term and permanent control cost and impacts (well established) {5.5.3}.

1. Over the last 100 years, there have been 1,550 documented examples of eradication on 998 islands, with success cited in 88 per cent of cases
   5.5.3
   well established
2. One of the many examples is French Polynesia, where Rattus rattus (black rat), Felis catus (cat), Oryctolagus cuniculus (rabbit) and Capra hircus (goat) have been successfully eradicated
   box 5.8
   well established
3. Eradication of invasive alien plants is particularly difficult because of the longevity of dormant seeds that can persist in soil (i.e., soil seed bank), although there are examples of successful eradication of invasive alien plant species with limited distributions
   5.5.3
   well established
4. Also, rapid response to incursions, detected early, of some invertebrates have been successful, for example, eradication of Solenopsis invicta (red imported fire ant) in New Zealand
   box 5.14
   well established
5. There are examples of larger-scale eradications, such as Ondatra zibethicus (muskrat) and Myocastor coypus (coypu) from the United Kingdom.
   5.5.3
   well established
6. However, large-scale eradications are difficult and unlikely to be feasible in many cases
   5.5.3
   well established
7. In addition to the extent of the area invaded, the success of eradication programmes depends on the support and engagement of relevant stakeholders and Indigenous Peoples and local communities
   5.4.2.2.a, 5.5.3, 5.6.2.1, 5.6.2.2
   well established
8. Eradication programmes are aided by a rapid flow of information on the extent and location of invasive alien species, which can be provided by people who live nearby
   5.4.2.2.a, 5.5.3
   well established
9. Evidence suggests that there have been no fully successful eradication programmes for established invasive alien species in marine ecosystems
   5.5.3
   well established
10. While eradication programmes can only be achieved with access to upfront cost, they are generally cheaper than long-term and permanent control cost and impacts
    5.5.3
    well established

C19 -- bm_label

Eradication has been successful and cost-effective for some invasive alien species, especially when their populations are small and slow-spreading in isolated ecosystems such as islands (established but incomplete) {5.5.3}.

1. Eradication has been successful and cost-effective for some invasive alien species, especially when their populations are small and slow-spreading in isolated ecosystems such as islands
   5.5.3
   established but incomplete

Containment and control can be an effective option for invasive alien species that cannot be eradicated for various reasons from terrestrial and closed water systems, but most attempts in marine and connected water systems have been largely ineffective {C20}. (KM-C4)

C20 -- bm_description

There are many examples of successful containment and control of invasive alien species in terrestrial and closed water systems and aquaculture (e.g., containment of Styela clava (Asian tunicate) invading the aqua-cultured blue mussel in Canada) (well established) {5.5.4}, but most attempts in marine and open water ecosystems have been largely ineffective (established but incomplete) {5.5.4, 5.5.5}. Containment of invasive alien species can be achieved with physical, chemical and biological control actions or in combination (table SPM.1) (well established) {5.4.3.2, 5.5.4}. Physical and chemical control options are mostly effective at a local scale but can also be effective at larger scales; these control options are limited by labour costs and generally provide short-term suppression but not sustained control (well established) {5.4.3.2.a}. Furthermore, chemical control may have non-target impacts, needs to be implemented under regulatory compliance requirements and has decreasing societal acceptability (well established) {5.4.3.2.b}. Biological control has been very effective in controlling some invasive alien plants, invertebrates and, to a lesser extent, plant microbes and a few invasive alien vertebrates, but it may have non-target impacts if not well regulated (well established) {5.5.5.3}. To reduce the risks of unintended consequences, including non-target impacts, from biological control, international standards and risk-based regulatory frameworks (developed under the International Plant Protection Convention) have been applied and continue to be effective across many countries (well established) {5.5.2}. The use of biological control for invasive alien plants and invertebrates has been successful in more than 60 per cent of documented cases (box SPM.3), with one third of the alien plant species requiring no further form of control, while also leading to benefits to biodiversity and ecosystem resilience (well established) {5.5.5.3}. Classical biological control to suppress invasive alien species populations at landscape scales has been effectively practised for more than 100 years (well established) {5.5.5.3}. Box SPM.3. Classical biological control of Mikania micrantha (bitter vine): an example of effective suppression of a widespread invasive alien species Classical biological control uses host-specific natural enemies (biological control agents) of invasive alien species (target) to suppress and control such species. Mikania micrantha (bitter vine), a native species of Central and South America, is one of the highest-impact fast-growing {2.5.2.1} invasive alien plants within the agricultural systems and natural and planted forests of the Asia-Pacific region {box 5.21}, affecting the livelihoods of farmers and rural communities, including women {4.5.1, 4.6.1}. In the native range of Mikania micrantha, a rust fungus (Puccinia spegazzinii) specific to this invasive alien plant causes necrosis of leaves and cankers on the stem and petioles {box 5.21}. Starting in 2006, Puccinia spegazzinii was introduced as a classical biological control agent and established in five countries in the Asia-Pacific region, where it has provided effective control of Mikania micrantha {box 5.21}. However, in India the rust fungus failed to survive in the field following introduction {box 5.21}.

1. There are many examples of successful containment and control of invasive alien species in terrestrial and closed water systems and aquaculture (e.g., containment of Styela clava (Asian tunicate) invading the aqua-cultured blue mussel in Canada)
   5.5.4
   well established
2. but most attempts in marine and open water ecosystems have been largely ineffective
   5.5.4, 5.5.5
   established but incomplete
3. Containment of invasive alien species can be achieved with physical, chemical and biological control actions or in combination (table SPM.1)
   5.4.3.2, 5.5.4
   well established
4. Physical and chemical control options are mostly effective at a local scale but can also be effective at larger scales; these control options are limited by labour costs and generally provide short-term suppression but not sustained control
   5.4.3.2.a
   well established
5. Furthermore, chemical control may have non-target impacts, needs to be implemented under regulatory compliance requirements and has decreasing societal acceptability
   5.4.3.2.b
   well established
6. Biological control has been very effective in controlling some invasive alien plants, invertebrates and, to a lesser extent, plant microbes and a few invasive alien vertebrates, but it may have non-target impacts if not well regulated
   5.5.5.3
   well established
7. To reduce the risks of unintended consequences, including non-target impacts, from biological control, international standards and risk-based regulatory frameworks (developed under the International Plant Protection Convention) have been applied and continue to be effective across many countries
   5.5.2
   n/a
8. The use of biological control for invasive alien plants and invertebrates has been successful in more than 60 per cent of documented cases (box SPM.3), with one third of the alien plant species requiring no further form of control, while also leading to benefits to biodiversity and ecosystem resilience
   5.5.5.3
   well established
9. Classical biological control to suppress invasive alien species populations at landscape scales has been effectively practised for more than 100 years
   5.5.5.3
   well established
10. Box SPM.3. Classical biological control of Mikania micrantha (bitter vine): an example of effective suppression of a widespread invasive alien species Classical biological control uses host-specific natural enemies (biological control agents) of invasive alien species (target) to suppress and control such species. Mikania micrantha (bitter vine), a native species of Central and South America, is one of the highest-impact fast-growing
    2.5.2.1
    n/a
11. Mikania micrantha is one of the highest-impact fast-growing invasive alien plants within the agricultural systems and natural and planted forests of the Asia-Pacific region.
    box 5.21
    n/a
12. affecting the livelihoods of farmers and rural communities, including women
    4.5.1, 4.6.1
    n/a
13. In the native range of Mikania micrantha, a rust fungus (Puccinia spegazzinii) specific to this invasive alien plant causes necrosis of leaves and cankers on the stem and petioles
    box 5.21
    n/a
14. Starting in 2006, Puccinia spegazzinii was introduced as a classical biological control agent and established in five countries in the Asia-Pacific region, where it has provided effective control of Mikania micrantha
    box 5.21
    n/a
15. However, in India the rust fungus failed to survive in the field following introduction
    box 5.21
    n/a

C20 -- bm_label

When eradication is not possible for different reasons, invasive alien species can be contained and controlled, particularly in terrestrial and closed water systems (well established) {5.4.3, 5.4.4, 5.5.4, 5.5.5}.

1. When eradication is not possible for different reasons, invasive alien species can be contained and controlled, particularly in terrestrial and closed water systems
   5.4.3, 5.4.4, 5.5.4, 5.5.5
   well established

The recovery of ecosystem functions and nature’s contributions to people can be achieved through adaptive management, including ecosystem restoration in terrestrial and closed water systems {C21}. (KM-C5)

C21 -- bm_description

The integration of site- and/or ecosystem-based management, including ecosystem restoration, can improve management outcomes, enhancing ecosystem function and resilience to environmental change, including future invasive alien species, especially under climate and land-use change (box SPM.4) (well established) {5.3.1, 5.3.2, 5.4.3, 5.5.6, 5.6.1.3}. The success of any applied adaptive site- or ecosystembased management approach, including ecosystem restoration, depends on long-term monitoring to assess management efficacy using ecological and social indicators (established but incomplete) {5.5.2, 6.6.3}. Long-term monitoring of sites ensures early detection of new introductions, reintroductions and re-emergence of invasive alien species (e.g., from a seed bank that includes invasive alien plants) and can inform further management actions (well established) {5.4.3.3.b, 5.5.6}. However, most studies failed to quantify the effectiveness of ecosystem restoration since they failed to measure the initial status of native vegetation. This has led to inconsistent conclusions regarding the best invasive alien plant control option which may lead to the most effective ecosystem restoration {5.4.3.3b; 5.5.6}. Regarding freshwater ecosystems, monitoring biodiversity using macroinvertebrate-based indices is a widely used method globally. However, knowledge is lacking on how invasive alien species may affect the metric scores and therefore classification of a river’s status (established but incomplete) {5.6.2.3}. In marine and connected water systems, ecosystem restoration has so far proved to be largely ineffective because the systems are open, leading to difficulties in implementing and evaluating management actions (established but incomplete) {5.5.6, 5.6.1.1}. Box SPM.4. Working for Water programme: an example of management of invasive alien species leading to recovery of nature’s contributions to people Control of widespread invasive alien species requires sustained, large-scale efforts but can lead to improvement in the provision of a range of nature’s contributions to people {box 5.19}. Certain invasive alien plants, such as shrubs and trees, can reduce water availability, especially in scenarios of increasing drought caused by climate change {box 5.4}. In South Africa, the Working for Water programme, an Expanded Public Works Programme, was introduced in 1995 and targeted historically disadvantaged communities, primarily women, youth and disabled people, creating jobs to reduce poverty nationally through the removal of widespread woody invasive alien species threatening water conservation {box 5.19}. The programme generated 20,000 jobs per year over the first 15 years and has helped to improve nature’s contributions to people by improving water security {box 5.19}. It has contributed to rural development by providing training in entrepreneurial and management skills while encouraging a sense of community and dignity among workers, especially women. The Working for Water programme shows how partnerships with rural communities to manage invasive alien species can bring both ecological and social benefits {box 5.19}.

1. The integration of site- and/or ecosystem-based management, including ecosystem restoration, can improve management outcomes, enhancing ecosystem function and resilience to environmental change, including future invasive alien species, especially under climate and land-use change (box SPM.4)
   5.3.1, 5.3.2, 5.4.3, 5.5.6, 5.6.1.3
   well established
2. The success of any applied adaptive site- or ecosystembased management approach, including ecosystem restoration, depends on long-term monitoring to assess management efficacy using ecological and social indicators
   5.5.2, 6.6.3
   established but incomplete
3. Long-term monitoring of sites ensures early detection of new introductions, reintroductions and re-emergence of invasive alien species (e.g., from a seed bank that includes invasive alien plants) and can inform further management actions
   5.4.3.3.b, 5.5.6
   well established
4. However, most studies failed to quantify the effectiveness of ecosystem restoration since they failed to measure the initial status of native vegetation. This has led to inconsistent conclusions regarding the best invasive alien plant control option which may lead to the most effective ecosystem restoration
   5.4.3.3b; 5.5.6
   n/a
5. Regarding freshwater ecosystems, monitoring biodiversity using macroinvertebrate-based indices is a widely used method globally. However, knowledge is lacking on how invasive alien species may affect the metric scores and therefore classification of a river’s status
   5.6.2.3
   established but incomplete
6. In marine and connected water systems, ecosystem restoration has so far proved to be largely ineffective because the systems are open, leading to difficulties in implementing and evaluating management actions
   5.5.6, 5.6.1.1
   established but incomplete
7. Box SPM.4. Working for Water programme: an example of management of invasive alien species leading to recovery of nature’s contributions to people Control of widespread invasive alien species requires sustained, large-scale efforts but can lead to improvement in the provision of a range of nature’s contributions to people
   box 5.19
   n/a
8. Certain invasive alien plants, such as shrubs and trees, can reduce water availability, especially in scenarios of increasing drought caused by climate change
   box 5.4
   n/a
9. In South Africa, the Working for Water programme, an Expanded Public Works Programme, was introduced in 1995 and targeted historically disadvantaged communities, primarily women, youth and disabled people, creating jobs to reduce poverty nationally through the removal of widespread woody invasive alien species threatening water conservation
   box 5.19
   n/a
10. The programme generated 20,000 jobs per year over the first 15 years and has helped to improve nature’s contributions to people by improving water security
    box 5.19
    n/a
11. It has contributed to rural development by providing training in entrepreneurial and management skills while encouraging a sense of community and dignity among workers, especially women. The Working for Water programme shows how partnerships with rural communities to manage invasive alien species can bring both ecological and social benefits
    box 5.19
    n/a

C21 -- bm_label

Adaptive management, including ecosystem restoration, can improve the management of invasive alien species and support the recovery of nature’s contributions to people in terrestrial and closed water systems (well established) {5.3.3, 5.4.4.3a, 5.5.6, 5.7}.

1. Adaptive management, including ecosystem restoration, can improve the management of invasive alien species and support the recovery of nature’s contributions to people in terrestrial and closed water systems
   5.3.3, 5.4.4.3a, 5.5.6, 5.7
   well established

Engagement and collaboration with stakeholders and Indigenous Peoples and local communities improve outcomes of management actions for biological invasions {C23, C24}. (KM-C6)

C23 -- bm_description

Access to adequate and sustained financial and other resources, including international funding to support developing countries, underpins and improves the effectiveness of actions for long-term management of biological invasions, including eradication, control and ongoing monitoring, by, for example, providing access to modern tools and enhancing capacity to deploy them (well established) {5.3.1, 5.5.7, 5.6.2.1, 5.6.2.2, 5.6.2.4, 6.5, 6.5.7}. Engagement by all stakeholders, governments and the private sector helps to optimize management of biological invasions in terms of economic, environmental and social outcomes, particularly when resources are limited (well established) {5.2.1, 6.5.1}. Societal support is important for eradication and control of some invasive alien species, particularly vertebrates, for which there are ethical considerations {5.3.1.4, 5.4.3.2, 5.6.2.1}. A lack of stakeholder participation in adaptive management can lead to negative consequences for good quality of life, especially for Indigenous Peoples and local communities who have adapted by using invasive alien species, that include loss of livelihoods, marginalization and/or gender inequity (well established) {box 4.18, 5.2.1, 5.4.3.3.a, 5.5.3, 5.6.1.2, 6.4.1}. The involvement of all stakeholders can be achieved by using an adaptive co-management approach to the process, from decision-making to the implementation of management actions (well established) {5.4.3.3.a, 5.6.2.5}. Adaptive co-management includes capacity-building; co-creation, co-design, co-development and co-implementation; social learning; and broad partnerships (established but incomplete) {5.7, 6.4.2, 6.4.3.2, 6.4.4}. Collaboratively addressing the management of biological invasions around which there are conflicting values among different sectors, stakeholders and Indigenous Peoples and local communities is a significant global policy challenge (well established) {5.6.1.2}.

1. Access to adequate and sustained financial and other resources, including international funding to support developing countries, underpins and improves the effectiveness of actions for long-term management of biological invasions, including eradication, control and ongoing monitoring, by, for example, providing access to modern tools and enhancing capacity to deploy them
   5.3.1, 5.5.7, 5.6.2.1, 5.6.2.2, 5.6.2.4, 6.5, 6.5.7
   well established
2. Engagement by all stakeholders, governments and the private sector helps to optimize management of biological invasions in terms of economic, environmental and social outcomes, particularly when resources are limited
   5.2.1, 6.5.1
   well established
3. Societal support is important for eradication and control of some invasive alien species, particularly vertebrates, for which there are ethical considerations
   5.3.1.4, 5.4.3.2, 5.6.2.1
   n/a
4. A lack of stakeholder participation in adaptive management can lead to negative consequences for good quality of life, especially for Indigenous Peoples and local communities who have adapted by using invasive alien species, that include loss of livelihoods, marginalization and/or gender inequity
   box 4.18, 5.2.1, 5.4.3.3.a, 5.5.3, 5.6.1.2, 6.4.1
   n/a
5. The involvement of all stakeholders can be achieved by using an adaptive co-management approach to the process, from decision-making to the implementation of management actions
   5.4.3.3.a, 5.6.2.5
   well established
6. Adaptive co-management includes capacity-building; co-creation, co-design, co-development and co-implementation; social learning; and broad partnerships
   5.7, 6.4.2, 6.4.3.2, 6.4.4
   established but incomplete
7. Collaboratively addressing the management of biological invasions around which there are conflicting values among different sectors, stakeholders and Indigenous Peoples and local communities is a significant global policy challenge
   5.6.1.2
   well established

C23 -- bm_label

Stakeholder engagement, capacity-building and sustained resourcing are critical to the success of adaptive management (well established) {5.2.1, 5.6.2.1, 5.6.2.2, 5.6.2.4, 6.4.1, 6.5.3, 6.5.6, 6.5.7}.

1. Stakeholder engagement, capacity-building and sustained resourcing are critical to the success of adaptive management
   5.2.1, 5.6.2.1, 5.6.2.2, 5.6.2.4, 6.4.1, 6.5.3, 6.5.6, 6.5.7
   well established

C24 -- bm_description

Many communities successfully manage invasive alien species on their lands (established but incomplete) {box 5.6, 5.5.2, 5.5.4, 5.5.5}, leading to increases in nature’s contributions to people (box SPM.4) (established but incomplete) {5.5.4, 5.5.5}. Consultation with Indigenous Peoples and local communities, through their free, prior and informed consent, by applying co-design principles for decision-making and actions helps to ensure efficacy of management outcomes at the local level (established but incomplete) {5.2.1, 6.4.3}. Co-delivered biocultural management plans based on shared scientific, technical and Indigenous and local knowledge systems have assisted surveillance and detection, eradication, containment and control of invasive alien species (established but incomplete) {5.5.3, 5.6.1.2, 6.4.3.2}. Such co-governance structures improve quality of life for Indigenous Peoples and local communities (established but incomplete) {6.4.3}. D. Ambitious progress to manage biological invasions can be achieved with integrated governance

1. Many communities successfully manage invasive alien species on their lands
   box 5.6, 5.5.2, 5.5.4, 5.5.5
   established but incomplete
2. Many communities successfully manage invasive alien species on their lands leading to increases in nature’s contributions to people (box SPM.4).
   5.5.4, 5.5.5
   established but incomplete
3. Consultation with Indigenous Peoples and local communities, through their free, prior and informed consent, by applying co-design principles for decision-making and actions helps to ensure efficacy of management outcomes at the local level
   5.2.1, 6.4.3
   established but incomplete
4. Co-delivered biocultural management plans based on shared scientific, technical and Indigenous and local knowledge systems have assisted surveillance and detection, eradication, containment and control of invasive alien species
   5.5.3, 5.6.1.2, 6.4.3.2
   established but incomplete
5. Such co-governance structures improve quality of life for Indigenous Peoples and local communities
   6.4.3
   established but incomplete
6. Ambitious progress to manage biological invasions can be achieved with integrated governance.
   n/a
   n/a

C24 -- bm_label

The knowledge, practices, values and customary governance systems of Indigenous Peoples and local communities can improve management outcomes (established but incomplete) {5.2.1, 5.5.2, 5.5.4, 5.5.5, 5.6.1.2, 6.4.3}.

1. The knowledge, practices, values and customary governance systems of Indigenous Peoples and local communities can improve management outcomes
   5.2.1, 5.5.2, 5.5.4, 5.5.5, 5.6.1.2, 6.4.3
   established but incomplete

Through a complementary set of strategic actions, integrated governance can limit the global problem of invasive alien species throughout the biological invasion process and at local, national and regional scales {D25}. (KM-D1)

D25 -- bm_description

Integrated governance for biological invasions consists of establishing the relationships between the roles of actors, institutions and instruments. This involves all those elements of the interactions between people and nature that act on biological invasion and their management, in order to identify the strategic interventions needed to improve outcomes of prevention and control of invasive alien species {box 6.5}. A context-specific integrated governance approach provides flexibility for countries to identify which strategic actions should be prioritized and can help in managing trade-offs and policy conflicts and in avoiding unintended policy consequences and inefficient expenditure (established but incomplete) {6.2.3, 6.7.1}. Strategic actions to prevent the introduction and impact of invasive alien species include: Enhance coordination and collaboration across international and regional mechanisms (established but incomplete) {6.2.3.4, 6.7.2.1}; Develop and adopt effective and achievable national implementation strategies (well established) {6.2.3.2, 6.3.3.1, 6.7.2.3}; Share efforts and commitments and understanding of the specific roles of all actors (established but incomplete) {6.7.2.5}; Improve policy coherence (well established) {6.3.1.1, 6.3.2, 6.3.3.1, 6.7.2.2}; Engage broadly across governmental sectors, industry, the scientific community, Indigenous Peoples and local communities and the wider public (established but incomplete) {6.4.2, 6.4.3, 6.7.2.4}; Support, fund and mobilize resources for innovation, research and environmentally sound technology (established but incomplete) {6.3.3.4, 6.7.2.7}; Support information systems, infrastructures and data sharing (established but incomplete) {6.6.2.3, 6.7.2.6}. Effective implementation, robustness of relevant institutions, responsiveness and equitability are key properties of governance systems that enable integrated governance (figure SPM.7), while the importance of context-appropriate solutions is acknowledged (established but incomplete) {6.2.3, 6.7.3}.

1. Integrated governance for biological invasions consists of establishing the relationships between the roles of actors, institutions and instruments. This involves all those elements of the interactions between people and nature that act on biological invasion and their management, in order to identify the strategic interventions needed to improve outcomes of prevention and control of invasive alien species
   box 6.5
   n/a
2. A context-specific integrated governance approach provides flexibility for countries to identify which strategic actions should be prioritized and can help in managing trade-offs and policy conflicts and in avoiding unintended policy consequences and inefficient expenditure
   6.2.3, 6.7.1
   established but incomplete
3. Strategic actions to prevent the introduction and impact of invasive alien species include: Enhance coordination and collaboration across international and regional mechanisms
   6.2.3.4, 6.7.2.1
   established but incomplete
4. Develop and adopt effective and achievable national implementation strategies
   6.2.3.2, 6.3.3.1, 6.7.2.3
   well established
5. Strategic actions to prevent the introduction and impact of invasive alien species include sharing efforts and commitments and understanding of the specific roles of all actors.
   6.7.2.5
   established but incomplete
6. Improve policy coherence
   6.3.1.1, 6.3.2, 6.3.3.1, 6.7.2.2
   well established
7. Engage broadly across governmental sectors, industry, the scientific community, Indigenous Peoples and local communities and the wider public
   6.4.2, 6.4.3, 6.7.2.4
   established but incomplete
8. Support, fund and mobilize resources for innovation, research and environmentally sound technology
   6.3.3.4, 6.7.2.7
   established but incomplete
9. Support information systems, infrastructures and data sharing
   6.6.2.3, 6.7.2.6
   established but incomplete
10. Effective implementation, robustness of relevant institutions, responsiveness and equitability are key properties of governance systems that enable integrated governance (figure SPM.7), while the importance of context-appropriate solutions is acknowledged
    6.2.3, 6.7.3
    established but incomplete

D25 -- bm_label

Management of biological invasions and prevention and control of invasive alien species can be achieved through a context-specific integrated governance approach with a set of complementary strategic actions (figure SPM.7) (established but incomplete) {6.2.3, 6.7.1, 6.7.2, 6.7.3}.

1. Management of biological invasions and prevention and control of invasive alien species can be achieved through a context-specific integrated governance approach with a set of complementary strategic actions (figure SPM.7)
   6.2.3, 6.7.1, 6.7.2, 6.7.3
   established but incomplete

The threat of invasive alien species could be reduced with closer collaboration and coordination across sectors and countries to support the management of biological invasions {D26, D30} (figure SPM.7). (KM-D2)

D26 -- bm_description

Many policy instruments aimed at preventing the introduction of invasive alien species have been adopted, including multilateral agreements, national laws, multi-level regulations and voluntary codes of conduct (well established) {6.1.2, 6.3.1}. They have jointly contributed to reducing the impacts of invasive alien species on nature, nature’s contributions to people, and good quality of life (established but incomplete) {5.5.1, 6.1.3}. The work under various relevant international organizations, partnerships and multilateral environmental agreements (e.g., the Convention on Biological Diversity, the World Trade Organization, the International Maritime Organization, the International Plant Protection Convention, the World Organisation for Animal Health, the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals and the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora) is not adequately aligned to address the problem posed by invasive alien species (well established) {6.3.1.3, 6.3.1.4}. Enhanced coordination and collaboration across international and regional mechanisms are key strategic actions for rapid and transformative progress (established but incomplete) {6.7.2.1} and could help international, national and local agencies that implement policies for the environment, agriculture, aquaculture, fishing, forestry, horticulture, border control, tourism and trade (e.g., in wildlife, but also including online trade in other animals, plants and other organisms), community and regional development (including infrastructure), transportation and health deliver a coherent approach to biological invasions (well established) {6.3.1.1}. Such coordination and collaboration efforts would consider the trade-offs across sectors {6.3.1.1(2), 6.3.1.3}, stakeholders and Indigenous Peoples and local communities {1.5.1}, and the interdependence between invasive alien species and other drivers (established but incomplete) {3.1.1, 3.1.5, 6.2.3.2, 6.7.2.2}. Collaborative, multisectoral and transdisciplinary approaches (such as One Health) provide frameworks to prevent and control invasive alien species by strengthening the interconnections between the human, animal, plant and environmental health sectors, including biosecurity (e.g., as outlined in the One Biosecurity framework among others) (established but incomplete) {1.6.7.2, 6.3.1, 6.7.2.2}.

1. Many policy instruments aimed at preventing the introduction of invasive alien species have been adopted, including multilateral agreements, national laws, multi-level regulations and voluntary codes of conduct.
   6.1.2, 6.3.1
   well established
2. They have jointly contributed to reducing the impacts of invasive alien species on nature, nature’s contributions to people, and good quality of life
   5.5.1, 6.1.3
   established but incomplete
3. The work under various relevant international organizations, partnerships and multilateral environmental agreements (e.g., the Convention on Biological Diversity, the World Trade Organization, the International Maritime Organization, the International Plant Protection Convention, the World Organisation for Animal Health, the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals and the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora) is not adequately aligned to address the problem posed by invasive alien species
   6.3.1.3, 6.3.1.4
   well established
4. Enhanced coordination and collaboration across international and regional mechanisms are key strategic actions for rapid and transformative progress
   6.7.2.1
   established but incomplete
5. Enhanced coordination and collaboration across international and regional mechanisms could help international, national and local agencies that implement policies for the environment, agriculture, aquaculture, fishing, forestry, horticulture, border control, tourism and trade (e.g., in wildlife, but also including online trade in other animals, plants and other organisms), community and regional development (including infrastructure), transportation and health deliver a coherent approach to biological invasions.
   6.3.1.1
   well established
6. Such coordination and collaboration efforts would consider the trade-offs across sectors
   6.3.1.1(2), 6.3.1.3
   n/a
7. Enhanced coordination and collaboration across international and regional mechanisms could help stakeholders and Indigenous Peoples and local communities deliver a coherent approach to biological invasions.
   1.5.1
   n/a
8. Enhanced coordination and collaboration across international and regional mechanisms would consider the interdependence between invasive alien species and other drivers.
   3.1.1, 3.1.5, 6.2.3.2, 6.7.2.2
   established but incomplete
9. Collaborative, multisectoral and transdisciplinary approaches (such as One Health) provide frameworks to prevent and control invasive alien species by strengthening the interconnections between the human, animal, plant and environmental health sectors, including biosecurity (e.g., as outlined in the One Biosecurity framework among others)
   1.6.7.2, 6.3.1, 6.7.2.2
   established but incomplete

D26 -- bm_label

One of the most effective ways to manage biological invasions is to develop coherent policy instruments that reinforce strategic actions across sectors and scales (established but incomplete) {6.3.1, 6.3.2, 6.5.4}.

1. One of the most effective ways to manage biological invasions is to develop coherent policy instruments that reinforce strategic actions across sectors and scales
   6.3.1, 6.3.2, 6.5.4
   established but incomplete

D30 -- bm_description

Indigenous Peoples and local communities can be partners in co-developing policies and strategies to address biological invasions while giving consideration to the challenge of conflicting perceptions and values in order to achieve consensus on management actions (established but incomplete) {5.6.1.2, 6.4.3.1 }. Participation of Indigenous Peoples and local communities can be enhanced with sufficient legal, political and financial support (well established) {6.4.3, box 6.16}. Successful strategies respect the knowledge, priorities and rights of Indigenous Peoples and local communities, including customary governance systems, in accordance with national legislation (established but incomplete) {5.1.3, 5.2.1, 5.6.2, 6.4.3}. In cases where the impact of invasive alien species on the quality of life of Indigenous Peoples and local communities is unavoidable, those communities need ongoing support and adequate resources to respond to the challenges of living with invasive alien species (established but incomplete) {1.6.7.2, 6.2.3.2, 6.2.3.5}.

1. Indigenous Peoples and local communities can be partners in co-developing policies and strategies to address biological invasions while giving consideration to the challenge of conflicting perceptions and values in order to achieve consensus on management actions
   5.6.1.2, 6.4.3.1
   established but incomplete
2. Participation of Indigenous Peoples and local communities can be enhanced with sufficient legal, political and financial support
   6.4.3, box 6.16
   n/a
3. Successful strategies respect the knowledge, priorities and rights of Indigenous Peoples and local communities, including customary governance systems, in accordance with national legislation
   5.1.3, 5.2.1, 5.6.2, 6.4.3
   established but incomplete
4. In cases where the impact of invasive alien species on the quality of life of Indigenous Peoples and local communities is unavoidable, those communities need ongoing support and adequate resources to respond to the challenges of living with invasive alien species
   1.6.7.2, 6.2.3.2, 6.2.3.5
   established but incomplete

D30 -- bm_label

Indigenous Peoples and local communities have invaluable knowledge systems that could contribute to addressing biological invasions (established but incomplete) {box 4.18, 5.5.3, 5.5.4, 6.4.3.2}, yet their lack of land tenure and access rights can limit the extent to which they are able to take action (well established) {6.4.3.1}.

1. Indigenous Peoples and local communities have invaluable knowledge systems that could contribute to addressing biological invasions
   box 4.18, 5.5.3, 5.5.4, 6.4.3.2
   established but incomplete
2. Yet their lack of land tenure and access rights can limit the extent to which they are able to take action.
   6.4.3.1
   well established

The Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework provides an opportunity for national governments to develop or update aspirational, ambitious and realistic approaches to prevent and control invasive alien species {D27, D28} (figure SPM.7). (KM-D3)

D27 -- bm_description

The national strategies and action plans could be developed or updated to align with and implement the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework, particularly target 6, as well as other relevant international guidelines for sustainable development, through aspirational, ambitious and realistic approaches (well established) {6.1.2, 6.2.3.2, 6.3.2.1, 6.6.3, 6.7.2.3}. Coordinated efforts to strengthen national regulatory instruments, including for the regulation of online trade {6.3.1.4(3)}, are key to reducing the transport and introduction of invasive alien species (established but incomplete) {6.3.1.1, 6.7.2.1}. Voluntary codes of conduct (box SPM.1) have limitations but they can be a valuable part of integrated systems to reduce the risk of biological invasions, when in line with relevant international obligations and national legislations (established but incomplete) {6.3.1.4(4)}. Adequately designed and implemented national biodiversity strategies and action plans are instruments to help manage biological invasions and mitigate the impacts of invasive alien species (established but incomplete) {6.1.2, 6.3.3.1}. Implementation of strategies could be accelerated by measuring and monitoring resourcing of actions, implementation processes, outputs and outcomes of policy management (established but incomplete) {table 6.5) (box 6.3, 6.6.3}, which could also create a conducive policy environment for the utilization of environmentally sound technologies (established but incomplete) {6.3.3.4}.

1. The national strategies and action plans could be developed or updated to align with and implement the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework, particularly target 6, as well as other relevant international guidelines for sustainable development, through aspirational, ambitious and realistic approaches.
   6.1.2, 6.2.3.2, 6.3.2.1, 6.6.3, 6.7.2.3
   well established
2. Coordinated efforts could strengthen national regulatory instruments, including for the regulation of online trade.
   6.3.1.4(3)
   n/a
3. Coordinated efforts to strengthen national regulatory instruments, including for the regulation of online trade, are key to reducing the transport and introduction of invasive alien species.
   6.3.1.1, 6.7.2.1
   established but incomplete
4. Voluntary codes of conduct (box SPM.1) have limitations but they can be a valuable part of integrated systems to reduce the risk of biological invasions, when in line with relevant international obligations and national legislations
   6.3.1.4(4)
   established but incomplete
5. Adequately designed and implemented national biodiversity strategies and action plans are instruments to help manage biological invasions and mitigate the impacts of invasive alien species
   6.1.2, 6.3.3.1
   established but incomplete
6. Implementation of strategies could be accelerated by measuring and monitoring resourcing of actions, implementation processes, outputs and outcomes of policy management
   table 6.5) (box 6.3, 6.6.3
   established but incomplete
7. Implementation of strategies could be accelerated by measuring and monitoring resourcing of actions, implementation processes, outputs and outcomes of policy management, which could also create a conducive policy environment for the utilization of environmentally sound technologies.
   6.3.3.4
   established but incomplete

D27 -- bm_label

National-scale strategies and action plans are instrumental to successfully managing biological invasions as part of a context-specific integrated governance approach (well established) {6.2.3.2, 6.3.2.1, 6.7.2.3}.

1. National-scale strategies and action plans are instrumental to successfully managing biological invasions as part of a context-specific integrated governance approach
   6.2.3.2, 6.3.2.1, 6.7.2.3
   well established

D28 -- bm_description

With adequate levels of sustained investment and resources (table SPM.2), including support to developing countries {6.5.7}, specific options that address the gaps and inconsistencies in current policy instruments and coordination can be implemented over appropriate timeframes (established but incomplete) {6.7.2.2, 6.7.2.3}. Regulatory and market-based instruments such as tax relief and subsidization can be used to incentivize action on and investment in prevention and control of invasive alien species (established but incomplete) {6.3.1, 6.5.1, 6.5.2}, especially when responsibility for the burden of biological invasions, including environmental liability, is shared (figure SPM.7). These instruments may be non-market mechanisms or voluntary codes of conduct (box SPM.1) {6.3.1.4}, transparent and conducive regulatory settings for new technologies {6.3.3.4, 6.7.2.7}, information-sharing {6.6.2, 6.7.3}, product labelling {6.3.1.4} or direct regulatory intervention {6.3.3.1, 6.3.3.3}. Regulations could be enforced with economic penalties and tariffs (established but incomplete) {6.5.1, 6.5.2}. However, taxation incentives, international standards and cost-sharing mechanisms are generally the preferable policy instruments for encouraging entities to participate in prevention and control activities (established but incomplete) {5.6.2.1, 6.5.1, 6.5.2, 6.5.4, 6.5.5, 6.5.6}. Efforts to overcome the asymmetries and differences in resource capacity among stakeholders and the potential unequal burden and responsibilities of addressing the causes and impacts of invasive alien species can be embedded in policies (established but incomplete) {6.2.3.3, 6.4.4.3}. Cost-benefit and “willingness to pay” analyses and stakeholder consultation can support the development of national policies to assist in justifying the use of public resources and developing the most appropriate incentives (established but incomplete) {5.2.2.1.i, 6.2.3.1(2), 6.2.3.4}.

1. With adequate levels of sustained investment and resources (table SPM.2), including support to developing countries
   6.5.7
   n/a
2. Specific options that address the gaps and inconsistencies in current policy instruments and coordination can be implemented over appropriate timeframes.
   6.7.2.2, 6.7.2.3
   established but incomplete
3. Regulatory and market-based instruments such as tax relief and subsidization can be used to incentivize action on and investment in prevention and control of invasive alien species
   6.3.1, 6.5.1, 6.5.2
   established but incomplete
4. Especially when responsibility for the burden of biological invasions, including environmental liability, is shared (figure SPM.7), these instruments may be non-market mechanisms or voluntary codes of conduct (box SPM.1).
   6.3.1.4
   n/a
5. Transparent and conducive regulatory settings for new technologies can be implemented.
   6.3.3.4, 6.7.2.7
   n/a
6. Product labelling can be used to incentivize action on and investment in prevention and control of invasive alien species.
   6.3.1.4
   n/a
7. or direct regulatory intervention
   6.3.3.1, 6.3.3.3
   n/a
8. Regulations could be enforced with economic penalties and tariffs
   6.5.1, 6.5.2
   established but incomplete
9. However, taxation incentives, international standards and cost-sharing mechanisms are generally the preferable policy instruments for encouraging entities to participate in prevention and control activities
   5.6.2.1, 6.5.1, 6.5.2, 6.5.4, 6.5.5, 6.5.6
   established but incomplete
10. Efforts to overcome the asymmetries and differences in resource capacity among stakeholders and the potential unequal burden and responsibilities of addressing the causes and impacts of invasive alien species can be embedded in policies
    6.2.3.3, 6.4.4.3
    established but incomplete
11. Cost-benefit and "willingness to pay" analyses and stakeholder consultation can support the development of national policies to assist in justifying the use of public resources and developing the most appropriate incentives
    5.2.2.1.i, 6.2.3.1(2), 6.2.3.4
    established but incomplete

D28 -- bm_label

Long-term commitment and resourcing from governments and institutions will support the implementation of strategic actions to underpin the integrated governance of biological invasions (established but incomplete) {6.2.3.2, 6.5.1, 6.5.3, 6.5.7}.

1. Long-term commitment and resourcing from governments and institutions will support the implementation of strategic actions to underpin the integrated governance of biological invasions
   6.2.3.2, 6.5.1, 6.5.3, 6.5.7
   established but incomplete

Preventing and controlling invasive alien species can strengthen the effectiveness of policies designed to respond to other threats to biodiversity and contribute to achieving several Sustainable Development Goals {D26, D33}. (KM-D4)

D26 -- bm_description

Many policy instruments aimed at preventing the introduction of invasive alien species have been adopted, including multilateral agreements, national laws, multi-level regulations and voluntary codes of conduct (well established) {6.1.2, 6.3.1}. They have jointly contributed to reducing the impacts of invasive alien species on nature, nature’s contributions to people, and good quality of life (established but incomplete) {5.5.1, 6.1.3}. The work under various relevant international organizations, partnerships and multilateral environmental agreements (e.g., the Convention on Biological Diversity, the World Trade Organization, the International Maritime Organization, the International Plant Protection Convention, the World Organisation for Animal Health, the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals and the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora) is not adequately aligned to address the problem posed by invasive alien species (well established) {6.3.1.3, 6.3.1.4}. Enhanced coordination and collaboration across international and regional mechanisms are key strategic actions for rapid and transformative progress (established but incomplete) {6.7.2.1} and could help international, national and local agencies that implement policies for the environment, agriculture, aquaculture, fishing, forestry, horticulture, border control, tourism and trade (e.g., in wildlife, but also including online trade in other animals, plants and other organisms), community and regional development (including infrastructure), transportation and health deliver a coherent approach to biological invasions (well established) {6.3.1.1}. Such coordination and collaboration efforts would consider the trade-offs across sectors {6.3.1.1(2), 6.3.1.3}, stakeholders and Indigenous Peoples and local communities {1.5.1}, and the interdependence between invasive alien species and other drivers (established but incomplete) {3.1.1, 3.1.5, 6.2.3.2, 6.7.2.2}. Collaborative, multisectoral and transdisciplinary approaches (such as One Health) provide frameworks to prevent and control invasive alien species by strengthening the interconnections between the human, animal, plant and environmental health sectors, including biosecurity (e.g., as outlined in the One Biosecurity framework among others) (established but incomplete) {1.6.7.2, 6.3.1, 6.7.2.2}.

1. Many policy instruments aimed at preventing the introduction of invasive alien species have been adopted, including multilateral agreements, national laws, multi-level regulations and voluntary codes of conduct.
   6.1.2, 6.3.1
   well established
2. They have jointly contributed to reducing the impacts of invasive alien species on nature, nature’s contributions to people, and good quality of life
   5.5.1, 6.1.3
   established but incomplete
3. The work under various relevant international organizations, partnerships and multilateral environmental agreements (e.g., the Convention on Biological Diversity, the World Trade Organization, the International Maritime Organization, the International Plant Protection Convention, the World Organisation for Animal Health, the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals and the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora) is not adequately aligned to address the problem posed by invasive alien species
   6.3.1.3, 6.3.1.4
   well established
4. Enhanced coordination and collaboration across international and regional mechanisms are key strategic actions for rapid and transformative progress
   6.7.2.1
   established but incomplete
5. Enhanced coordination and collaboration across international and regional mechanisms could help international, national and local agencies that implement policies for the environment, agriculture, aquaculture, fishing, forestry, horticulture, border control, tourism and trade (e.g., in wildlife, but also including online trade in other animals, plants and other organisms), community and regional development (including infrastructure), transportation and health deliver a coherent approach to biological invasions.
   6.3.1.1
   well established
6. Such coordination and collaboration efforts would consider the trade-offs across sectors
   6.3.1.1(2), 6.3.1.3
   n/a
7. Enhanced coordination and collaboration across international and regional mechanisms could help stakeholders and Indigenous Peoples and local communities deliver a coherent approach to biological invasions.
   1.5.1
   n/a
8. Enhanced coordination and collaboration across international and regional mechanisms would consider the interdependence between invasive alien species and other drivers.
   3.1.1, 3.1.5, 6.2.3.2, 6.7.2.2
   established but incomplete
9. Collaborative, multisectoral and transdisciplinary approaches (such as One Health) provide frameworks to prevent and control invasive alien species by strengthening the interconnections between the human, animal, plant and environmental health sectors, including biosecurity (e.g., as outlined in the One Biosecurity framework among others)
   1.6.7.2, 6.3.1, 6.7.2.2
   established but incomplete

D26 -- bm_label

One of the most effective ways to manage biological invasions is to develop coherent policy instruments that reinforce strategic actions across sectors and scales (established but incomplete) {6.3.1, 6.3.2, 6.5.4}.

1. One of the most effective ways to manage biological invasions is to develop coherent policy instruments that reinforce strategic actions across sectors and scales
   6.3.1, 6.3.2, 6.5.4
   established but incomplete

D33 -- bm_description

Mitigating the risks of invasive alien species will contribute to the effective delivery of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, including the Sustainable Development Goals, especially those addressing the conservation of marine (Goal 14) and terrestrial biodiversity (Goal 15 including, but not restricted to, Target 15.8), food security (Goal 2), sustainable economic growth (Goal 8), sustainable cities (Goal 11), climate change (Goal 13), and good health and well-being (Goal 3) (established but incomplete) {6.7}. An integrated governance approach that acknowledges the interactions between invasive alien species and other drivers, including climate change, direct exploitation of natural resources, pollution and land- and sea-use, alongside human, animal and plant health, can identify where to best direct policy alignment and mutually supportive efforts (established but incomplete) {3.1.5, 6.2.4, 6.7.2.1, 6.7.2.2, 6.7.2.5}. Evidence-based policy planning can reflect the interconnectedness of the drivers so that efforts to solve one problem do not exacerbate the magnitude of others and may even have multiple benefits (established but incomplete) {3.2.5, box 3.9, 5.6.1.3, 6.2.4, 6.3.1.1(1), 6.7.2.2}. The strategic actions are: Enhance coordination and collaboration across international and regional mechanisms. Develop and adopt effective and achievable national implementation strategies. Share efforts, commitments and understanding of the specific roles of all actors. Improve policy coherence. Engage broadly across governmental sectors, industry, the scientific community, Indigenous Peoples and local communities and the wider public. Support, fund and mobilize resources for innovation, research and environmentally sound technology. Support information systems, infrastructures and data sharing. The proposed strategic actions are enabled when the system-wide properties of governance (roots) are robust, equitable and inclusive, responsive and focused on effective implementation. The numbers on the branches do not imply a ranking.

1. Mitigating the risks of invasive alien species will contribute to the effective delivery of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, including the Sustainable Development Goals, especially those addressing the conservation of marine (Goal 14) and terrestrial biodiversity (Goal 15 including, but not restricted to, Target 15.8), food security (Goal 2), sustainable economic growth (Goal 8), sustainable cities (Goal 11), climate change (Goal 13), and good health and well-being (Goal 3).
   6.7
   established but incomplete
2. An integrated governance approach that acknowledges the interactions between invasive alien species and other drivers, including climate change, direct exploitation of natural resources, pollution and land- and sea-use, alongside human, animal and plant health, can identify where to best direct policy alignment and mutually supportive efforts.
   3.1.5, 6.2.4, 6.7.2.1, 6.7.2.2, 6.7.2.5
   established but incomplete
3. Evidence-based policy planning can reflect the interconnectedness of the drivers so that efforts to solve one problem do not exacerbate the magnitude of others and may even have multiple benefits.
   3.2.5, box 3.9, 5.6.1.3, 6.2.4, 6.3.1.1(1), 6.7.2.2
   established but incomplete
4. The strategic actions are: Enhance coordination and collaboration across international and regional mechanisms. Develop and adopt effective and achievable national implementation strategies. Share efforts, commitments and understanding of the specific roles of all actors. Improve policy coherence. Engage broadly across governmental sectors, industry, the scientific community, Indigenous Peoples and local communities and the wider public. Support, fund and mobilize resources for innovation, research and environmentally sound technology. Support information systems, infrastructures and data sharing. The proposed strategic actions are enabled when the system-wide properties of governance (roots) are robust, equitable and inclusive, responsive and focused on effective implementation. The numbers on the branches do not imply a ranking.
   n/a
   n/a

D33 -- bm_label

Successfully addressing biological invasions can also strengthen the effectiveness of policies designed to respond to other drivers (established but incomplete) {5.6.1.3, 6.3, 6.7.2.2}.

1. Successfully addressing biological invasions can also strengthen the effectiveness of policies designed to respond to other drivers
   5.6.1.3, 6.3, 6.7.2.2
   established but incomplete

Open and interoperable information systems will improve the coordination and effectiveness of the management of biological invasions, within and across countries {D31, D32}. (KM-D5)

D31 -- bm_description

Strengthening existing open information systems can facilitate the management of biological invasions, including prioritization of actions, early detection and rapid response, and can improve the effectiveness of regulations (established but incomplete) {5.4.1, 6.6.2.3}. Open information systems can substantially reduce the costs of management by ensuring targeted and appropriate responses, avoiding duplication of efforts and facilitating the evaluation of the effectiveness of policy instruments using indicators (table SPM.2) (well established) {6.6.2.4, 6.6.2.6, 6.6.3}. The “rate of invasive alien species establishment” headline indicator adopted for monitoring progress towards target 6 of the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework provides opportunities to build on existing indicators of biological invasions (table SPM.A1) {6.6.3}. Collaboration and networking among stakeholders and governments can ensure equitable knowledge access (established but incomplete) {6.2.3.3, 6.2.3.4} and improve understanding of the context-specific features of biological invasions. It can also improve the availability of data and knowledge across geographic regions, habitats and taxonomic groups and reduce the wide variation in response capability (established but incomplete) {6.2.3.3, 6.4.1, 6.7.2.6}. Through citizen science, information systems have the potential to engage people, raise awareness and increase the availability of data (established but incomplete) {6.6.2.1}.

1. Strengthening existing open information systems can facilitate the management of biological invasions, including prioritization of actions, early detection and rapid response, and can improve the effectiveness of regulations
   5.4.1, 6.6.2.3
   established but incomplete
2. Open information systems can substantially reduce the costs of management by ensuring targeted and appropriate responses, avoiding duplication of efforts and facilitating the evaluation of the effectiveness of policy instruments using indicators (table SPM.2)
   6.6.2.4, 6.6.2.6, 6.6.3
   well established
3. The "rate of invasive alien species establishment" headline indicator adopted for monitoring progress towards target 6 of the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework provides opportunities to build on existing indicators of biological invasions (table SPM.A1)
   6.6.3
   n/a
4. Collaboration and networking among stakeholders and governments can ensure equitable knowledge access
   6.2.3.3, 6.2.3.4
   established but incomplete
5. Collaboration and networking among stakeholders and governments can improve understanding of the context-specific features of biological invasions, improve the availability of data and knowledge across geographic regions, habitats and taxonomic groups, and reduce the wide variation in response capability.
   6.2.3.3, 6.4.1, 6.7.2.6
   established but incomplete
6. Through citizen science, information systems have the potential to engage people, raise awareness and increase the availability of data
   6.6.2.1
   established but incomplete

D31 -- bm_label

Open and interoperable information systems, supported by international cooperation, play a critical role in tackling biological invasions (established but incomplete) {6.2.3.1(3), 6.6.2.2, 6.7.2.6}.

1. Open and interoperable information systems, supported by international cooperation, play a critical role in tackling biological invasions
   6.2.3.1(3), 6.6.2.2, 6.7.2.6
   established but incomplete

D32 -- bm_description

The available data and knowledge reviewed for this assessment vary across regions, units of analyses, taxonomic groups and time because of language barriers, lack of targeted policies and legislation, lack of resources, uneven research capacity, data accessibility and other factors (table SPM.A1), contributing to gaps in data and knowledge (well established) {2.7, 3.6.1, box 3.12, box 3.13, 4.7.2, 6.6, table 6.10}. Nonetheless, filling knowledge and data gaps, particularly at local scales, can bring about important improvements in the cost-effectiveness and success of prevention and management actions (well established) {6.6.1, 6.6.2}. For example, it would be particularly beneficial to increase the availability of information on invasive alien invertebrates and microorganisms; improve knowledge of the impacts of invasive alien species in parts of Africa, Central Asia and Latin America; gain a better understanding of the role of indirect and interacting drivers; develop management options for invasive microorganisms and marine species; and establish the effectiveness of different policy instruments (established but incomplete) (see table SPM.A1 for a comprehensive presentation of knowledge gaps). Enhancing research capacity in some regions and collaboration between biological invasion experts in the developed and developing world and across knowledge systems could improve data and information availability as well as understanding of the context-specific features of invasive alien species and their impacts (established but incomplete) {6.2.4, 6.6.1.1(3)}. With political will, strategic long-term commitment and sufficient resources, management of biological invasions is an attainable goal (well established) {boxes 5.2, 5.4, 5.5, 5.6, 5.7, 5.8, 5.9, 5.11, 5.12, 5.14, 5.15, 5.16, 5.17, 5.19, 5.21}.

1. The available data and knowledge reviewed for this assessment vary across regions, units of analyses, taxonomic groups and time because of language barriers, lack of targeted policies and legislation, lack of resources, uneven research capacity, data accessibility and other factors (table SPM.A1), contributing to gaps in data and knowledge.
   2.7, 3.6.1, box 3.12, box 3.13, 4.7.2, 6.6, table 6.10
   well established
2. Nonetheless, filling knowledge and data gaps, particularly at local scales, can bring about important improvements in the cost-effectiveness and success of prevention and management actions
   6.6.1, 6.6.2
   well established
3. For example, it would be particularly beneficial to increase the availability of information on invasive alien invertebrates and microorganisms; improve knowledge of the impacts of invasive alien species in parts of Africa, Central Asia and Latin America; gain a better understanding of the role of indirect and interacting drivers; develop management options for invasive microorganisms and marine species; and establish the effectiveness of different policy instruments
   n/a
   established but incomplete
4. (see table SPM.A1 for a comprehensive presentation of knowledge gaps). Enhancing research capacity in some regions and collaboration between biological invasion experts in the developed and developing world and across knowledge systems could improve data and information availability as well as understanding of the context-specific features of invasive alien species and their impacts
   6.2.4, 6.6.1.1(3)
   established but incomplete
5. With political will, strategic long-term commitment and sufficient resources, management of biological invasions is an attainable goal
   boxes 5.2, 5.4, 5.5, 5.6, 5.7, 5.8, 5.9, 5.11, 5.12, 5.14, 5.15, 5.16, 5.17, 5.19, 5.21
   well established

D32 -- bm_label

Existing evidence of the magnitude and extent of the impacts of invasive alien species supports immediate, strategic and sustained action to successfully address biological invasions (well established) {1.1, 2.2, 3.6.3, 4.3.1, 4.4.1, 4.5.1, 5.6.2.5, 6.7.2}.

1. Existing evidence of the magnitude and extent of the impacts of invasive alien species supports immediate, strategic and sustained action to successfully address biological invasions
   1.1, 2.2, 3.6.3, 4.3.1, 4.4.1, 4.5.1, 5.6.2.5, 6.7.2
   well established

Public awareness, commitment and engagement, and capacity-building, are crucial for the prevention and control of invasive alien species {D29, D31, D32} (table SPM.2). (KM-D6)

D29 -- bm_description

Public understanding of the risks associated with invasive alien species is particularly important for preventing new introductions (well established) {6.2.2(9), 6.4.1}. Increased understanding of possible biological invasions and the negative impacts of invasive alien species can be achieved through public awareness campaigns {box 6.11, 6.7.2.5}, education across all age groups {6.7.2.4} and citizen science (established but incomplete) {5.4.2.2.a, 6.6.2.1}. Engagement of the general public via citizen science platforms, awareness campaigns and community-driven eradication campaigns also contributes to establishing shared responsibilities for managing biological invasions (established but incomplete) {6.7.2.5}. Surveillance for detecting invasive alien species through citizen science and social media provides broader security by empowering and engaging the public (established but incomplete) {5.4.2.1.a, 5.4.2.2.a, 6.6.2.1}. Communication is an effective tool for inspiring collective action to monitor and control invasive alien species {6.2.3.1(4), 6.2.3.4, 6.4.4.4} by supporting the co-design of management actions, knowledge exchange and enhanced partnerships among stakeholders and researchers (established but incomplete) {6.2.3.3, 6.4.4.3}. It can also enable alignment of resource managers’ responses with national plans and policy priorities (well established) {6.3.1.3, 6.3.2.1}. An effective communications strategy considers the most appropriate timing, media and channels/interfaces for the target audience (established but incomplete) {box 6.13, 6.6.2.6}.

1. Public understanding of the risks associated with invasive alien species is particularly important for preventing new introductions.
   6.2.2(9), 6.4.1
   well established
2. Increased understanding of possible biological invasions and the negative impacts of invasive alien species can be achieved through public awareness campaigns
   box 6.11, 6.7.2.5
   n/a
3. Education across all age groups can be achieved through public awareness campaigns.
   6.7.2.4
   n/a
4. Public understanding of the risks associated with invasive alien species can be achieved through citizen science.
   5.4.2.2.a, 6.6.2.1
   established but incomplete
5. Engagement of the general public via citizen science platforms, awareness campaigns and community-driven eradication campaigns also contributes to establishing shared responsibilities for managing biological invasions
   6.7.2.5
   established but incomplete
6. Surveillance for detecting invasive alien species through citizen science and social media provides broader security by empowering and engaging the public
   5.4.2.1.a, 5.4.2.2.a, 6.6.2.1
   established but incomplete
7. Communication is an effective tool for inspiring collective action to monitor and control invasive alien species
   6.2.3.1(4), 6.2.3.4, 6.4.4.4
   n/a
8. Communication is an effective tool for inspiring collective action to monitor and control invasive alien species by supporting the co-design of management actions, knowledge exchange and enhanced partnerships among stakeholders and researchers.
   6.2.3.3, 6.4.4.3
   established but incomplete
9. Communication can also enable alignment of resource managers’ responses with national plans and policy priorities
   6.3.1.3, 6.3.2.1
   well established
10. An effective communications strategy considers the most appropriate timing, media and channels/interfaces for the target audience
    box 6.13, 6.6.2.6
    established but incomplete

D29 -- bm_label

Public awareness and engagement contribute to the effective management of biological invasions (well established) {5.6.2.1, 6.2.2(9), 6.3.1.4, 6.4.1, 6.6.2.1, 6.7}.

1. Public awareness and engagement contribute to the effective management of biological invasions
   5.6.2.1, 6.2.2(9), 6.3.1.4, 6.4.1, 6.6.2.1, 6.7
   n/a

D31 -- bm_description

Strengthening existing open information systems can facilitate the management of biological invasions, including prioritization of actions, early detection and rapid response, and can improve the effectiveness of regulations (established but incomplete) {5.4.1, 6.6.2.3}. Open information systems can substantially reduce the costs of management by ensuring targeted and appropriate responses, avoiding duplication of efforts and facilitating the evaluation of the effectiveness of policy instruments using indicators (table SPM.2) (well established) {6.6.2.4, 6.6.2.6, 6.6.3}. The “rate of invasive alien species establishment” headline indicator adopted for monitoring progress towards target 6 of the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework provides opportunities to build on existing indicators of biological invasions (table SPM.A1) {6.6.3}. Collaboration and networking among stakeholders and governments can ensure equitable knowledge access (established but incomplete) {6.2.3.3, 6.2.3.4} and improve understanding of the context-specific features of biological invasions. It can also improve the availability of data and knowledge across geographic regions, habitats and taxonomic groups and reduce the wide variation in response capability (established but incomplete) {6.2.3.3, 6.4.1, 6.7.2.6}. Through citizen science, information systems have the potential to engage people, raise awareness and increase the availability of data (established but incomplete) {6.6.2.1}.

1. Strengthening existing open information systems can facilitate the management of biological invasions, including prioritization of actions, early detection and rapid response, and can improve the effectiveness of regulations
   5.4.1, 6.6.2.3
   established but incomplete
2. Open information systems can substantially reduce the costs of management by ensuring targeted and appropriate responses, avoiding duplication of efforts and facilitating the evaluation of the effectiveness of policy instruments using indicators (table SPM.2)
   6.6.2.4, 6.6.2.6, 6.6.3
   well established
3. The "rate of invasive alien species establishment" headline indicator adopted for monitoring progress towards target 6 of the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework provides opportunities to build on existing indicators of biological invasions (table SPM.A1)
   6.6.3
   n/a
4. Collaboration and networking among stakeholders and governments can ensure equitable knowledge access
   6.2.3.3, 6.2.3.4
   established but incomplete
5. Collaboration and networking among stakeholders and governments can improve understanding of the context-specific features of biological invasions, improve the availability of data and knowledge across geographic regions, habitats and taxonomic groups, and reduce the wide variation in response capability.
   6.2.3.3, 6.4.1, 6.7.2.6
   established but incomplete
6. Through citizen science, information systems have the potential to engage people, raise awareness and increase the availability of data
   6.6.2.1
   established but incomplete

D31 -- bm_label

Open and interoperable information systems, supported by international cooperation, play a critical role in tackling biological invasions (established but incomplete) {6.2.3.1(3), 6.6.2.2, 6.7.2.6}.

1. Open and interoperable information systems, supported by international cooperation, play a critical role in tackling biological invasions
   6.2.3.1(3), 6.6.2.2, 6.7.2.6
   established but incomplete

D32 -- bm_description

The available data and knowledge reviewed for this assessment vary across regions, units of analyses, taxonomic groups and time because of language barriers, lack of targeted policies and legislation, lack of resources, uneven research capacity, data accessibility and other factors (table SPM.A1), contributing to gaps in data and knowledge (well established) {2.7, 3.6.1, box 3.12, box 3.13, 4.7.2, 6.6, table 6.10}. Nonetheless, filling knowledge and data gaps, particularly at local scales, can bring about important improvements in the cost-effectiveness and success of prevention and management actions (well established) {6.6.1, 6.6.2}. For example, it would be particularly beneficial to increase the availability of information on invasive alien invertebrates and microorganisms; improve knowledge of the impacts of invasive alien species in parts of Africa, Central Asia and Latin America; gain a better understanding of the role of indirect and interacting drivers; develop management options for invasive microorganisms and marine species; and establish the effectiveness of different policy instruments (established but incomplete) (see table SPM.A1 for a comprehensive presentation of knowledge gaps). Enhancing research capacity in some regions and collaboration between biological invasion experts in the developed and developing world and across knowledge systems could improve data and information availability as well as understanding of the context-specific features of invasive alien species and their impacts (established but incomplete) {6.2.4, 6.6.1.1(3)}. With political will, strategic long-term commitment and sufficient resources, management of biological invasions is an attainable goal (well established) {boxes 5.2, 5.4, 5.5, 5.6, 5.7, 5.8, 5.9, 5.11, 5.12, 5.14, 5.15, 5.16, 5.17, 5.19, 5.21}.

1. The available data and knowledge reviewed for this assessment vary across regions, units of analyses, taxonomic groups and time because of language barriers, lack of targeted policies and legislation, lack of resources, uneven research capacity, data accessibility and other factors (table SPM.A1), contributing to gaps in data and knowledge.
   2.7, 3.6.1, box 3.12, box 3.13, 4.7.2, 6.6, table 6.10
   well established
2. Nonetheless, filling knowledge and data gaps, particularly at local scales, can bring about important improvements in the cost-effectiveness and success of prevention and management actions
   6.6.1, 6.6.2
   well established
3. For example, it would be particularly beneficial to increase the availability of information on invasive alien invertebrates and microorganisms; improve knowledge of the impacts of invasive alien species in parts of Africa, Central Asia and Latin America; gain a better understanding of the role of indirect and interacting drivers; develop management options for invasive microorganisms and marine species; and establish the effectiveness of different policy instruments
   n/a
   established but incomplete
4. (see table SPM.A1 for a comprehensive presentation of knowledge gaps). Enhancing research capacity in some regions and collaboration between biological invasion experts in the developed and developing world and across knowledge systems could improve data and information availability as well as understanding of the context-specific features of invasive alien species and their impacts
   6.2.4, 6.6.1.1(3)
   established but incomplete
5. With political will, strategic long-term commitment and sufficient resources, management of biological invasions is an attainable goal
   boxes 5.2, 5.4, 5.5, 5.6, 5.7, 5.8, 5.9, 5.11, 5.12, 5.14, 5.15, 5.16, 5.17, 5.19, 5.21
   well established

D32 -- bm_label

Existing evidence of the magnitude and extent of the impacts of invasive alien species supports immediate, strategic and sustained action to successfully address biological invasions (well established) {1.1, 2.2, 3.6.3, 4.3.1, 4.4.1, 4.5.1, 5.6.2.5, 6.7.2}.

1. Existing evidence of the magnitude and extent of the impacts of invasive alien species supports immediate, strategic and sustained action to successfully address biological invasions
   1.1, 2.2, 3.6.3, 4.3.1, 4.4.1, 4.5.1, 5.6.2.5, 6.7.2
   well established

There is compelling evidence for immediate and sustained action to manage biological invasions and mitigate the negative impacts of invasive alien species {D32, D33} (table SPM.2). (KM-D7)

D32 -- bm_description

The available data and knowledge reviewed for this assessment vary across regions, units of analyses, taxonomic groups and time because of language barriers, lack of targeted policies and legislation, lack of resources, uneven research capacity, data accessibility and other factors (table SPM.A1), contributing to gaps in data and knowledge (well established) {2.7, 3.6.1, box 3.12, box 3.13, 4.7.2, 6.6, table 6.10}. Nonetheless, filling knowledge and data gaps, particularly at local scales, can bring about important improvements in the cost-effectiveness and success of prevention and management actions (well established) {6.6.1, 6.6.2}. For example, it would be particularly beneficial to increase the availability of information on invasive alien invertebrates and microorganisms; improve knowledge of the impacts of invasive alien species in parts of Africa, Central Asia and Latin America; gain a better understanding of the role of indirect and interacting drivers; develop management options for invasive microorganisms and marine species; and establish the effectiveness of different policy instruments (established but incomplete) (see table SPM.A1 for a comprehensive presentation of knowledge gaps). Enhancing research capacity in some regions and collaboration between biological invasion experts in the developed and developing world and across knowledge systems could improve data and information availability as well as understanding of the context-specific features of invasive alien species and their impacts (established but incomplete) {6.2.4, 6.6.1.1(3)}. With political will, strategic long-term commitment and sufficient resources, management of biological invasions is an attainable goal (well established) {boxes 5.2, 5.4, 5.5, 5.6, 5.7, 5.8, 5.9, 5.11, 5.12, 5.14, 5.15, 5.16, 5.17, 5.19, 5.21}.

1. The available data and knowledge reviewed for this assessment vary across regions, units of analyses, taxonomic groups and time because of language barriers, lack of targeted policies and legislation, lack of resources, uneven research capacity, data accessibility and other factors (table SPM.A1), contributing to gaps in data and knowledge.
   2.7, 3.6.1, box 3.12, box 3.13, 4.7.2, 6.6, table 6.10
   well established
2. Nonetheless, filling knowledge and data gaps, particularly at local scales, can bring about important improvements in the cost-effectiveness and success of prevention and management actions
   6.6.1, 6.6.2
   well established
3. For example, it would be particularly beneficial to increase the availability of information on invasive alien invertebrates and microorganisms; improve knowledge of the impacts of invasive alien species in parts of Africa, Central Asia and Latin America; gain a better understanding of the role of indirect and interacting drivers; develop management options for invasive microorganisms and marine species; and establish the effectiveness of different policy instruments
   n/a
   established but incomplete
4. (see table SPM.A1 for a comprehensive presentation of knowledge gaps). Enhancing research capacity in some regions and collaboration between biological invasion experts in the developed and developing world and across knowledge systems could improve data and information availability as well as understanding of the context-specific features of invasive alien species and their impacts
   6.2.4, 6.6.1.1(3)
   established but incomplete
5. With political will, strategic long-term commitment and sufficient resources, management of biological invasions is an attainable goal
   boxes 5.2, 5.4, 5.5, 5.6, 5.7, 5.8, 5.9, 5.11, 5.12, 5.14, 5.15, 5.16, 5.17, 5.19, 5.21
   well established

D32 -- bm_label

Existing evidence of the magnitude and extent of the impacts of invasive alien species supports immediate, strategic and sustained action to successfully address biological invasions (well established) {1.1, 2.2, 3.6.3, 4.3.1, 4.4.1, 4.5.1, 5.6.2.5, 6.7.2}.

1. Existing evidence of the magnitude and extent of the impacts of invasive alien species supports immediate, strategic and sustained action to successfully address biological invasions
   1.1, 2.2, 3.6.3, 4.3.1, 4.4.1, 4.5.1, 5.6.2.5, 6.7.2
   well established

D33 -- bm_description

Mitigating the risks of invasive alien species will contribute to the effective delivery of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, including the Sustainable Development Goals, especially those addressing the conservation of marine (Goal 14) and terrestrial biodiversity (Goal 15 including, but not restricted to, Target 15.8), food security (Goal 2), sustainable economic growth (Goal 8), sustainable cities (Goal 11), climate change (Goal 13), and good health and well-being (Goal 3) (established but incomplete) {6.7}. An integrated governance approach that acknowledges the interactions between invasive alien species and other drivers, including climate change, direct exploitation of natural resources, pollution and land- and sea-use, alongside human, animal and plant health, can identify where to best direct policy alignment and mutually supportive efforts (established but incomplete) {3.1.5, 6.2.4, 6.7.2.1, 6.7.2.2, 6.7.2.5}. Evidence-based policy planning can reflect the interconnectedness of the drivers so that efforts to solve one problem do not exacerbate the magnitude of others and may even have multiple benefits (established but incomplete) {3.2.5, box 3.9, 5.6.1.3, 6.2.4, 6.3.1.1(1), 6.7.2.2}. The strategic actions are: Enhance coordination and collaboration across international and regional mechanisms. Develop and adopt effective and achievable national implementation strategies. Share efforts, commitments and understanding of the specific roles of all actors. Improve policy coherence. Engage broadly across governmental sectors, industry, the scientific community, Indigenous Peoples and local communities and the wider public. Support, fund and mobilize resources for innovation, research and environmentally sound technology. Support information systems, infrastructures and data sharing. The proposed strategic actions are enabled when the system-wide properties of governance (roots) are robust, equitable and inclusive, responsive and focused on effective implementation. The numbers on the branches do not imply a ranking.

1. Mitigating the risks of invasive alien species will contribute to the effective delivery of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, including the Sustainable Development Goals, especially those addressing the conservation of marine (Goal 14) and terrestrial biodiversity (Goal 15 including, but not restricted to, Target 15.8), food security (Goal 2), sustainable economic growth (Goal 8), sustainable cities (Goal 11), climate change (Goal 13), and good health and well-being (Goal 3).
   6.7
   established but incomplete
2. An integrated governance approach that acknowledges the interactions between invasive alien species and other drivers, including climate change, direct exploitation of natural resources, pollution and land- and sea-use, alongside human, animal and plant health, can identify where to best direct policy alignment and mutually supportive efforts.
   3.1.5, 6.2.4, 6.7.2.1, 6.7.2.2, 6.7.2.5
   established but incomplete
3. Evidence-based policy planning can reflect the interconnectedness of the drivers so that efforts to solve one problem do not exacerbate the magnitude of others and may even have multiple benefits.
   3.2.5, box 3.9, 5.6.1.3, 6.2.4, 6.3.1.1(1), 6.7.2.2
   established but incomplete
4. The strategic actions are: Enhance coordination and collaboration across international and regional mechanisms. Develop and adopt effective and achievable national implementation strategies. Share efforts, commitments and understanding of the specific roles of all actors. Improve policy coherence. Engage broadly across governmental sectors, industry, the scientific community, Indigenous Peoples and local communities and the wider public. Support, fund and mobilize resources for innovation, research and environmentally sound technology. Support information systems, infrastructures and data sharing. The proposed strategic actions are enabled when the system-wide properties of governance (roots) are robust, equitable and inclusive, responsive and focused on effective implementation. The numbers on the branches do not imply a ranking.
   n/a
   n/a

D33 -- bm_label

Successfully addressing biological invasions can also strengthen the effectiveness of policies designed to respond to other drivers (established but incomplete) {5.6.1.3, 6.3, 6.7.2.2}.

1. Successfully addressing biological invasions can also strengthen the effectiveness of policies designed to respond to other drivers
   5.6.1.3, 6.3, 6.7.2.2
   established but incomplete